Cleaning & Prevention of Algae, Fungus, Lichens, Moss on Stone Tombstones, Graves, Walls, Sidewalks InspectAPedia® -
How to clean graves, tombstones, stone walls, sidewalks
How to identify, remove, & prevent algae, lichens, or moss growth on graves, tombstones, stone walls, sidewalks
Photographs of Algae, lichens, moss, mold help identify these substances in nature and on buildings
We provide photos and text to help distinguish among algae, lichens, moss and mold growths on any surface.
Diagnose stains on stone exteriors or roofs of buildings: this article describes and provide photographs and advice on identifying, cleaning, and preventing algae, moss, lichens, or fungal growth that occurs on stone surfaces such as buildings, gravestones, sidewalks, stone walls, and in nature.
InspectAPedia offers impartial, unbiased advice without conflicts of interest.
We will block advertisements which we discover or readers inform us are associated with bad business practices,
false-advertising, or junk science. Our contact info is at
InspectAPedia.com/Contact.htm.
We include links to references useful in the identification of algae, moss, lichens, and mold. Our page top photograph shows a lichens and possibly moss coated tombstone in Australia provided by reader Patrick Walsh who consulted regarding cleaning and restoration of this family grave marker.
We discuss the cleaning/restoration of this stone grave marker in more detail at STONE CLEANING METHODS.
Appearance of Algae, Fungus, Lichens, or Moss on Stone Surfaces
Colors & Types of Stains on Stone Surfaces
Once we include lichens (such as our photo at left, from Portland Maine), the range of colored growths or stains on stone surfaces is quite large. But the most common stain colors are
Black (or dark brown) - most often due to algae, bacteria, dirt or soot, fungus. Fungus may also on occasion produce green or white films on stonework. [Photo of black-brown roof algae on antique metal roof shingles]
Brown or red rust stains - occur on masonry usually due to combination of water and metal components
Below we provide example photographs of different colors and sources of stain or contaminants on stone or masonry surfaces, followed by advice on cleaning and stain prevention.
Black Stains on Stone Surfaces due to Algae, Fungus, or Dirt, Soot, Debris:
The presence of algae or fungus (mold) on a stone surface most often appears as a function of both weather exposure and the location of the surface in a shaded spot where you may want to be alert for
development of moss as well.
Our photo (left) shows black staining, probably fungal in origin, on historic structures in Patzcuaro, Mexico.
The level of damage to a stone surface from black algae or any colored fungus is likely to be less than from moss and less than
that caused by lichens.
Black Staining & Stone Damage from Cyanobacteria - Gloeocapsa sp. and fungi
Black stains on stone are quite often caused by a cyanobacteria (see Catalog of Substances that Alter Stone, Glass, Steel) Gloeocapsa sp. that not only stain the stone black, but also increase water absorption by penetrating veins in the stone (or marble, for example) leading to honeycomb weathering damage to the stonework.
Wet stone exposed to either freeze-thaw cycles or heating by bright sun can be spalled or cracked by these forces. For an example that received media attention, the New York Times reported ("Microbes Eating Away at Pieces of History", 24 June 2008) extensive damage to Angkor Wat, a twelfth century Hindu temple in Cambodia. Sixty to seventy percent of the Angkor Wat temple is black and deteriorating.
Significantly for building diagnosticians, the Times article reported that originally people believed that the black on this stone was due to "weathering". The Times continued that only recently have experts begun to realize the important role of both bacteria and fungi in the deterioration of cultural sites around the world. The article also noted that air pollution can increase the effects of biodeterioration.
Our photo (above left) shows black staining on the stone surface of a mausoleum in Buenos Aires. Without closer examination we could not be sure if this was dirt and debris from city and traffic air, a dark fungus, or algae.
Our second photo of black growth on a stone roof (above right) was taken in Molde, Norway. Also see SLATE ROOF INSPECTION & REPAIR.
Algae and sometimes mold often appear on organic and even inorganic surfaces of buildings and in nature such as on asphalt roof shingles shown at ALGAE STAINS ON ASPHALT ROOF SHINGLES. It is possible that on these metal roof shingles (Justin Morrill Smith historic home in Strafford VT) mold or algae is hosted by a painted coating on the roof.
Green Stains on Stone Surfaces due to Algae or Moss
Green stains due to algae: green stains also appear on buildings including on shingles, siding, and even on masonry walls, sidewalks, planters, and retaining walls: stone, concrete block, and concrete.
Our photo (left) shows green algae on a fallen decorative brownstone artifact at the Mills Mansion, in Stattsburgh, New York.
If you see flat green stain on a building exterior and that is not producing any plant-like raised growth it is likely to be an algae. Our photo (below-left) shows green algae on concrete at a sidewalk and basement window grate surround.
Algae under the microscope: Our second photo (below right) shows what algae growth looks like under the microscope.
Watch out: on walks and decks algae makes for a dangerously slippery surface when it is wet.
More photos of algae, lichens, and moss, including both on building or stone surfaces and under the microscope are at ALGAE, FUNGUS, LICHENS, MOSS.
Green stains due to moss: unlike the algae staining above, thick green growth on a stone or masonry surface is more likely to be moss such as the mossy concrete entry platform at the New York home shown at below left. The moss on this surface holds water, is a slip, trip, or fall safety hazard, and depending on the hardness of the concrete, it may also lead to spalling or frost damage to the concrete itself.
Reindeer moss: Our second moss and lichens photo (above right, Quetico boundary canoe area, Canada) demonstrates that moss and lichens can coexist happily on the same surface, and even intermixed on a surface where we show two kinds of moss. In our photo, the taller pale growth among the green moss is itself "Reindeer Moss, Caribou Moss" or in other references "Antler Moss".
Our photograph shows Cladonia rangeferina or perhaps Cladonia sp. along with both moss and other lichens on the same stone. Reindeer moss is itself actually a lichen, and is an important food source for reindeer and caribou). Reindeer moss is quite fragile and slow growing, found in both hot and cold climates and in alpine tundra - don't trample it in the wild.
Moss under the microscope. As our photo (at left) shows, it's easy to see the plant-like structure of moss fragments, as our photograph (left) demonstrates. This moss sample was collected from a basement wall: we suspect that the damp conditions that produced this moss growth on the building wall also increased the risk of a mold problem in the same structure.
But you shouldn't need to use a microscope to identify moss. For a species/genera identification guide to mosses we include some moss information resources below.
What does Lichens look like on Stone Surfaces
See Lichens on Stone Surfaces for our complete article on this topic. Excerpts follow. Also see Lichens on Roofs for a discussion of lichen damage to shingles and how to prevent lichens growth on roofs.
Lichens, one of the most hardy growth organisms found in nature, can grow in harsh conditions. Moss and lichens are both more than a cosmetic issue on most materials.
By holding moisture against the stone or other material surface lichens but more so moss speed the wear of the surface in freezing climates by increasing frost damage to the surface and by action of the organism's "roots" that penetrate the material surface.
Our photo (left) shows green lichens growth on a gravestone near Vassar College, in Poughkeepsie, NY. Notice that the lichens appears first on the more roughened stone surfaces inside the carved gravestone lettering, and on the rough-cut north face of the stone.
In addition to stone surfaces and mineral-covered roof surfaces, lichens also grows just fine on clay tile roofing and on wood (as those photo links show).
Lichens on Roofs demonstrate the mechanical damage that can be caused by lichens on surfaces. See Lichens on Roofs for details about the causes, effects, and prevention of lichens growth on roofing surfaces.
Lichens is often found growing on roof shingles, especially asphalt and wood shingles as we show here where we demonstrate the damage to the surface when lichens is removed. Our photos (below) illustrate how serious lichens damage can be to a mineral surface.
Does Lichens Always Need to be Cleaned Off of Stone Surfaces?
No, of course not. The lichens growing on this stone wall in Poughkeepsie, NY (constructed by and found at Adams Fairacre Farms) is not going to do any harm, and in fact adds to the attractiveness of the wall.
Red or Other Color Stains on Stone Surfaces
Red stains on stone or masonry surfaces may be due to lichens, or on occasion bleed-down from rusting iron as we demonstrate just below.
Red stains on the surface of and as much as 1.5mm into Carrara and Condoglia Marble used in Italian monuments (the Certosa of Pavia facade, the Orvieto cathedral, the fountain statues of Villa Litta near Milan) have been reported by E. Zanardini et. als in Art, Biology, and Conservation: Biodeterioration in Works of Art, Robert J. Koestler et als. Eds., Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003, ISBN 1-58839-107-8.
Apparently there is an association between a lead source, lead found in and on these works and lead-resistant microorganisms. The authors investigated this phenomenon and concluded that although red-pigmented microorganisms were present in the stains, "... their presence does not appear to be related either to the red coloration or to the presence of lead;" The conclusion was that the red stains on the Italian marble studied were due to the presence of lead.
Brown or Reddish-Brown Rust Stains on Stone, Concrete, Brick, Masonry Surfaces
Brown stains on stone, concrete, or brick are often caused by bleed-out from rusting components. In our rust-on-stone photo (below left) the deep brown stains in the bottom center of this photo (79th St. Boat Basin, New York City) are probably caused by the combination of salt from the roadway above, water leaks into and through the structure, and steel reinforcing rod or wire.
Our photo of the concrete tower in Buenos Aires (below right) shows rust stains on concrete at the catwalk brackets (click to enlarge).
Catalog of Biological Substances that Alter Stone or Other Inorganic Materials
For conservators, the latter text, (Art, Biology ...) includes important studies on treatment and prevention of artifact deterioration, including studies of the use of biocides, anoxic eradication of fungi, and the use of other biocides or preparations for use in defense of cultural artifacts against microbial and environmental agents.
Methods for Cleaning & Preventing Future Organic Growth (Algae, Fungus, Lichens, Moss) from Stone, Brick, or Concrete Surfaces
Please see our complete article on this topic at Methods for Cleaning Stone Surfaces. Excerpts follow. Especially if you are restoring artifacts, art works, tombstones, or graves, avoid any aggressive cleaning methods that might damage the roof surface.
Mechanical Cleaning of Brick, Stone or Concrete Surfaces
The gravestone that was shown at the top of this page and appears below in "before and after" photos was successfully cleaned using simply a soft bristle brush and plain water. Here is what Patrick Walsh said about the cleaning procedure:
I only used regular cold tap water, no soap, and a soft bristled dish-brush. You should wet down and rub in water on the stone by hand (the growths were oily, and repelling water!). Then brush in circular pattern to break down the lichens, moss, or algae, using plenty of water for lubrication. Hand wipe the gravestone down before it dries again.
Start cleaning the tombstone at the top and work down. That way you won't have to re-scrub the run-off.
This was a 7-foot high grave stone including the cross. All told, (minus the cross) it took me about 45 minutes (I started on the back, so I would be inspired to do the rest and in case I found a problem. Then I cleaned the gravestone's sides and top. The front surface was cleaned last.
Whatever cleaning is done on a stone or masonry surface, make sure the process does
not cause more harm than good to the artifact and to the environment around it.
Online Guide to Types of Stains on Building Surfaces:
In the following guide we list types of stains by stain color & appearance, by building location or material, and by stain cause. We distinguish among the following stuff that may stain or be found growing building roofs, walls, or other surfaces, with extra focus on asphalt shingle roofs as well as other roofing materials such as wood shingles, wood shakes, roll roofing, and even slate or tile roofs. Some of these types of roof stains or discoloration are only cosmetic in nature, while others may indicate growths that are likely to reduce the roof covering life. A more detailed, illustrated version of the list below is given at STAIN DIAGNOSIS on BUILDING EXTERIORS.
Black stains on asphalt roofing products such as asphalt shingles or roll roofing, caused by extractive bleeding (product defects) - see Bleed-Through and see Roofing material defect / environmentally-caused roof shingle stains.
Black, brown, or gray stains on roofing products due to debris left on the roof surface, such as piles of leaves and organic waste from nearby trees. See Debris Staining and see Proximate cause roof shingle stains
Black or other colored stains on roof surfaces may be caused by soot from chimneys, both wood-fired and oil-fired devices. Black or other colored stains may also appear on roof surfaces from nearby industrial activities. See Soot Staining.
Brown or red stains on roof surfaces are often caused by rust from wearing steel flashing or other on-roof metal products. See Rust Stains on Shingles.
Green roof stains on roof shingles, clay tiles, cement tiles, and asbestos cement roof shingles or newer fiber cement roof shingles are often caused by algae. For details see ALGAE STAINS ON ASPHALT ROOF SHINGLES. Moss on roofs is also often green and should be unmistakable in appearance. See ALGAE, FUNGUS, LICHENS, MOSS on SHINGLES.
Moss on roofs and other building surfaces: see ALGAE, FUNGUS, LICHENS, MOSS on SHINGLES, and Green Stains on Stone. Green or other colored mosses are a bit easier to remove than lichens on roofing surfaces, but both can carry away mineral granules and damage the roof surface. Moss tends to hold more water and moisture on the roof surface. So in our opinion moss is more likely to damage a roof surface than lichens or algae. Also see ALGAE, FUNGUS, LICHENS, MOSS COMPARED.
Rust Stains on buildings - see Rust Staining - Red or Brown Rust Stains (on shingles)
Soot or Creosote black or brown stains on roof surfaces near or below chimneys - see SOOT STAINING - Black Soot Stains on Roof Shingles Around Chimneys and see Proximate cause roof shingle stains
Stains on stone or masonry surfaces - see STONE CLEANING METHODS for cause, cure, and prevention
White stains on roof surfaces may be from wash-down of pigments in paint on surfaces above the roof such as a gable end or dormer wall; white or less-black roof surfaces may also be found below copper or aluminum flashing whose salts run down the roof surface in wet weather, preventing algae or moss growth and leaving a white area on an otherwise stained roof surface. Our article at ALGAE, FUNGUS, LICHENS, MOSS on SHINGLES includes a photograph of this condition on a wood shingle roof.
Critique, contributions wanted: Contact Us to suggest corrections or additions to articles at this website, and if you wish, to receive online listing and credit as a contributor. Particular thanks are due to the many experts and also consumers who read and critique technical articles at InspectAPedia.com.
Additional technical contributors & reference sources for this article are listed below.
Use links just below or at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.
Guides to identifying mosses, lichens, algae Graphic Guide Ontario Mosses (some of which appear widely dispersed by climate and geographic area, not just in Ontario) which offers a graphic guide to mosses. worldofmosses.com/ggom/index.html
Also see the sources listed at worldofmosses.com/ggom/ggomBibliography.html
Also see the Journal Folia Geobotanica, Springer, Netherlands ISSN1211-9520 (Print) 1874-9348 (Online) IssueVolume 11, Number 2 / June, 1976 DOI10.1007/BF02854759 Pages217-22
The Ecology of Algae, F.E. Round, Cambridge University Press, 1984 ISBN-10: 0521269067 ISBN-13: 978-0521269063 (Available at Amazon.com) After an introduction outlining the chemical and physical characteristics of the environment, the book goes on to look at the actual habitats in which algae occur. The communities of the individual habitats such as open water, sediments, rocky shores, coral reefs, hot springs, sea ice, soil, etc., are then discussed with special phenomena highlighted, for example rhythmic activity, nitrogen fixation and buoyancy. There are also chapters on seasonal cycles of algal growth, energy flow, geographical dispersion, palaeo-ecology and contribution to sediments. The importance of algae in symbiotic relationships and their considerable significance to animal grazers in aquatic food chains are also discussed. The final chapter deals with the relationships of algae to eutrophication and pollution of water. This is an important aspect, which can only be understood through an appreciation of algal ecology.
Lichens of North America, Irwin M. Brodo, Yale University Press, 2001, ISBN-10: 0300082495, # ISBN-13: 978-0300082494 (Available at Amazon.com)
Quoting from Library Journal: Lichens are a combination of a fungus and an alga but have a unique structure and appearance quite different from either. Existing worldwide and growing on a variety of surfaces, including rocks, soil, and trees, they may appear leafy, shrubby, mossy, crusty, or jellylike and are seen in a wide range of colors, from brilliant oranges, yellows, and reds to dull grays and browns. This huge new book, written by a world authority on lichens and emeritus research scientist at the Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, provides information on about 1500 of the roughly 3600 recognized North American lichens. Part 1 introduces lichens in 14 clearly written chapters that discuss their biology, ecology, geography, environmental roles, and collection. Part 2, the heart of the book, is a guide that offers identification keys to groups, genera, and species and their descriptions, with accompanying photographs and North American distribution maps. The more than 900 truly beautiful, full-color photos were taken by the Sharnoffs, nature photographers whose work has been widely published in National Geographic, Smithsonian, and elsewhere. Of value to professionals and amateurs alike, this book is certain to be a classic reference for decades to come. Highly recommended for academic and research libraries and for public libraries where interest warrants; libraries needing only a brief yet informative introduction to lichens should consider William Purvis's inexpensive Lichens (Smithsonian Institution, 2000). William H. Wiese, Iowa State Univ. Lib., Ames
Cultural Heritage and Aerobiology, Methods and Measurement Techniques for Biodeterioration Monitoring, Paolo Mandrioli, Guilia Caneva, and Cristina Sabbioni, Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003 ISBN 1-4020-1622-0 See our book review of this reference. The conservation of art objects relies on expert inspection, testing, and diagnosis of environmental contaminants and factors that affect the deterioration of artworks, such as mold, moisture, temperature, acid rain, and both indoor and outdoor air quality components. This text reviews these important art conservation concerns and describes methods for the inspection, testing, and monitoring of environmental conditions wherever artworks and other cultural artifacts are located.
"Assessing Cleaning and Water-Repellent Treatments for Historic Masonry buildings", Robert C. Mack, FAIA, Anne GrimmerU.S. National Park Service, web search 07/24/2010, original source: http://www.nps.gov/hps/tps/briefs/brief01.htm
Quoting from the document introduction: The purpose of this Brief is to provide information on the variety of cleaning methods and materials that are available for use on the exterior of historic masonry buildings, and to provide guidance in selecting the most appropriate method or combination of methods. The difference between water-repellent coatings and waterproof coatings is explained, and the purpose of each, the suitability of their application to historic masonry buildings, and the possible consequences of their inappropriate use are discussed. The Brief is intended to help develop sensitivity to the qualities of historic masonry that makes it so special, and to assist historic building owners and property managers in working cooperatively with architects, architectural conservators, and contractors. Although specifically intended for historic buildings, the information is applicable to all masonry buildings. This publication updates and expands Preservation Briefs 1: The Cleaning and Waterproof Coating of Masonry buildings. The Brief is not meant to be a cleaning manual or a guide for preparing specifications. Rather, it provides general information to raise awareness of the many factors involved in selecting cleaning and water-repellent treatments for historic masonry buildings.
Thanks to Patrick Walsh for discussing cleaning methods for gravestones & tombs May 2010
Shingle Shield™ are zinc strips that are inserted under the shingle tabs of individual shingles to reduce moss, lichens, and algae growth on asphalt roofing - see shingleshield.com
StainhandleR are zinc strips that are inserted under the shingle tabs of individual shingles to reduce moss, lichens, and algae growth on asphalt roofing- see stainhandler.com
Zinc-Shield® - zincshield.com and Z-stop™ zinc roofing strips - z-stop.com, are roll-out zinc strips intended for installation near the ridge of a roof to reduce moss, lichens, and algae growth on roofs
04/09: thanks to William M. Norman, P.E., S.E., Keeler-Webb Associates, 486 Gradle Drive, Carmel, IN 46032 for opening discussion regarding the legitimacy of extractive bleeding as a term to apply to asphalt roofing material. Mr. Norman suggests that many (not all) black stains on asphalt roofing may be due to algal growth. We will report progress in this discussion as updates to this web article.
How to Recognize & Control Sooty Molds, USDA publication on the recognition and control of black sooty molds, including on buildings.
This publication is also available in printed form from the U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992 657-152 HT-69 1992. The original article was authored by Kenneth K.Kessler, Jr., Principal Plant Pathologist, U.S. Forest Service, in the Department of Agriculture of the United States. Copies are also available from North Central Distribution Center, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Dr., Madison WI 53705-2398.
"Microbes Eating Away at Pieces of History", Vina Venkataraman, The New York Times, 27 June 2008 p. F3.
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.
Paint and Surface Coatings, Theory and Practice [purchase at Amazon.com], R. Lambourne & T.A. Strivens, Ed., Woodhead Publishing Ltd., William Andrew Publishing, 1999 ISBN 1-85573-348 X & 1-884207-73-1 [This is perhaps the leading reference on modern paints and coatings, but is a difficult text to obtain, and is a bit short on field investigation methods - DF]
Analysis of Modern Paints, Thomas J.S. Learner, Research in Conservation, 2004 ISBN 0-89236-779-2 [Chemistry of modern paints, overview of analytical methods, pyrolysis-gas chromatography signatures of basic modern paints and their constituents, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for paint analysis, direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry, and analysis in practice - technical reference useful for forensic paint science, focused on art works -DF]
Seeing Through Paintings, Physical Examination in Art Historical Studies, Andrea Kirsh, Rustin S. Levenson, Materials in Fine Arts, 2000 ISBN 99-051835 [ forensic science, technical reference, focused on art works - DF]
Sealants, Durability of Building Sealants (RILEM Proceedings), J.C. Beech, A.T. Wolf, Spon Press; illustrated edition (1995), ISBN-10: 0419210709, ISBN-13: 978-0419210702 This book presents the papers given at the RILEM Seminar held at the Building Research Establishment, Garston, UK in October 1994. The book provides an opportunity for researchers to review up-to-date progress towards the achievement of the objectives of the standardisation of laboratory techniques of sealants in the variety of service conditions to which they are exposed.
Soiling and Cleaning of Building Facades (RILEM Report), L.G.W. Verhoef (Editor), Routledge; 1 edition (November 3, 1988), ISBN-10: 0412306700, USBN-13: 978-0412306709 The report of a comprehensive investigation by RILEM which examines all aspects of the cleaning of facades, subject to soiling by both biological and non-biological agencies. The contributors are international authorities working in this field giving essential advice to all those who need to know how to approach the problems connected with the soiling and cleaning of building facades.
Staining, Prevention of Premature Staining in New buildings, Phil Parnham, Taylor & Francis; 1996, ISBN-10: 0419171304, ISBN-13: 978-0419171300 The appearance of ugly staining early in a buildings life, ruins an otherwise pleasing appearance, tarnishes the image of the owners and gives rise to costly refurbishment works. In this book Phil Parnham raises a number of questions that should be considered whenever a new building is being designed or built. These are: * why has staining become so prominent; * what causes premature staining; which parts of new buildings are likely to be affected; * how can it be avoided? By using a number of highly illustrated case studies, the author answers these questions and ends by suggesting measures that should be taken by all design and construction professionals to prevent premature staining.
Paint Handbook: testing, selection, application, troubleshooting, surface preparation, etc., Guy E. Weismantel, Ed., McGraw Hill Book Company, 1981, ISBN-10: 0070690618, ISBN-13: 978-0070690615, [Excellent but a bit obsolete paint theory and practice, also a bit light on field investigation methods, out of print, available used-DF] How to select and apply the right paint or coating for any surface. The first major reference to help you choose the correct paint or other finish to do the job best on a particular surface exposed to a particular environment. Experts in the field give full advice on testing surface preparation, application, corrosion prevention, and troubleshooting. The handbook covers wood, metal, composites, and masonry, as well as marine applications and roof coatings. A ``must'' working tool for contractors, architects, engineers, specification writers, and paint dealers.
Paint and Surface Coatings, Theory and Practice, R. Lambourne & T.A. Strivens, Ed., Woodhead Publishing Ltd., William Andrew Publishing, 1999 ISBN 1-85573-348 X & 1-884207-73-1 [This is perhaps the leading reference on modern paints and coatings, but is a difficult text to obtain, and is a bit short on field investigation methods - DF] Provides a comprehensive reference source for all those in the paint industry, paint manufacturers and raw materials suppliers, undergraduate and postgraduate students, and industrial paint users. R. Lambourne was in the Research Department at ICI Paints Division and the Industrial Colloid Advisory Group, Birstol University, UK.
Understanding Ventilation, John Bower, The Healthy House Institute, ISBN 0-9637156-5-8, 1995 [General building science-DF - ** Particularly useful text. Mr. Bower has retired from the field but his book continues to be important]
"Moisture Control in buildings: Putting Building Science in Green Building," Alex Wilson, Environmental Building News, Vol. 12. No. 5. [Good tutorial, "Moisture 101" outlining the physics of moisture movement in buildings and a good but incomplete list of general suggestions for moisture control - inadequate attention given to exterior conditions such as roof and surface drainage defects which are among the most-common sources of building moisture and water entry.--DJF]
Mobile View
