Heating Oil & Fuel Oil Properties Guide
A Description of Petroleum-based Fuels & Their Characteristics

HEATING or FUEL OIL TYPES & CHARACTERISTICS
What are the Different Petroleum-based Fuels and What are their Characteristics?
- What are the differences between diesel fuel, home heating oil, kerosene, jet fuel, No. 2 heating oil, etc.?
- Are some of these petroleum based fuels interchangeable?
- Comparing the specific gravity and pour point of various oil fuels, kerosene, heating oil
- Using a hydrometer or the Friedman freeze test to distinguish kerosene from heating oil
- Problems With Heating System Reliability When Heating Oil Additives are Used or Low-Level Oil Tanks are Filled
Questions & Answers about different types of petroleum based fuels: kerosene, home heating oil, jet fuel, diesel fuel, etc.
References

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Properties of heating oil & related petroleum-based fuels: types of heating fuels & other petroleum based fuels such as kerosene, diesel fuel, home heating oil: This article describes the Different Petroleum-based Fuels and their Characteristics. This website answers most questions about all types of heating systems and gives important inspection, safety, and repair advice.

What are the Different Petroleum-based Fuels and What are their Characteristics?

The differences among these fuels, arranged in our list from "lightest" to "heaviest" are in the types of hydrocarbon chains that are distilled out of the crude oil during refining (and also that some of these fuels may contain other additives.

Jet Fuel type A basically Kerosene, or filtered #1 oil cleaned up to higher specifications including very fine filtering (through diatomaceous earth) and a water removal step.
Kerosene is #1 oil which has been filtered to clean it up. Sold at ridiculously higher prices in stores as "lamp oil" this material may have deodorants or fragrances added. A traditional name for kerosene is "coal oil", though it is in fact a petroleum product and is not made from coal.
#1 fuel oil is more refined than #2 oil, has a lower pour point (or gel point or waxing point), is less viscous, has a higher septane rating and contains fewer BTU's per gallon than #2 heating oil.
Diesel fuel used in diesel powered vehicles and some other engines, is basically #2 home heating oil. But in the U.S. and other countries, home heating oil has dye added in order to distinguish it from un-taxed or lower-taxed fuels from un-dyed and higher-taxed diesel fuels used for over-the-road vehicles.

Use of dye in diesel fuels: Un-taxed diesel is "dyed" and taxed diesel (that is, by a vehicle fuel tax) is not-dyed. In an emergency if you're out of home heating oil you can drive to the "gas" station to purchase diesel fuel (but you'll pay more since it's taxed). In the U.S. "red diesel" is used to identify high-sulfur diesel fuel for use in off-road equipment and machines.The I.R.S. requires a red dye in tax-exempt diesel fuel such as that used for home heating. Also in the U.S. blue die is added to diesel fuel used by government vehicles. In the U.K. "red diesel" is agricultural and other off-road vehicles and machines. In the E.U. a solvent yellow 124 dye is added to un-taxed fuels - it can be detected by an acid-test. Removing dye from diesel fuels is illegal.

Does diesel fuel dye affect its performance? There have been questions raised about whether or not the use of marker dyes in diesel fuel affect its performance. To date we have not found analysis nor tests which confirm that there is a measurable effect on fuel atomization nor burn in home heating systems. In other words, apparently not. Diesel fuel dye does not affect the performance of the fuel. A question about the effect of dyes on jet engines was raised in a New York Times article in 1997.
Diesel fuel Winter Blend combines Diesel fuel with about 10% to 20% #1 oil to avoid waxing or gelling of the fuel. The septane rating of winter blend diesel fuel will usually be above regular diesel fuel when a septane-booster additive has been included.

Reader Herman Vogel points out that adding a higher septane #1 fuel (kerosene, for example) to a lower septane #2 fuel, makes the mixture higher in septane. Also see Mr. Vogel's COMPLETE COMBUSTION, Stoichiometric for an explanation of complete fuel combustion and boiler or furnace maximum efficiency.

If you are unable to obtain a winter mix of diesel fuel and are facing cold temperatures, additives are sold for consumer use, to be poured into diesel fuel to avoid waxing or cold-filter plugging, such as Diesel 9.1.1® sold by Power Service Products.

Note that some texts refer to the diesel fuel or home heating fuel waxing point as the Cold-Filter Plugging Point or CFPP. (The sketch of an oil burner (below) is courtesy of Carson Dunlop Associates. )

Home Heating Oil Winter Blend combines #2 heating oil with #1 oil (often called a "kerosene mix" by the heating oil distributor) (Copyright violation protection insert: this text is ©InspectAPedia.com) for use at homes with outdoor oil tanks in freezing climates. Kerosene mix is usually 10 - 20% #1 with #2 similar to the Winter Blend Diesel described above.
Home Heating Oil also referred to as #2 Fuel Oil or by some writers as Regular Fuel Oil. One gallon of No. 2 home heating oil will provide about 138,500 BTUs per gallon.

How flammable is home heating oil?: it's not that easy to set on fire. If you were to toss a match into a bucket of No.2 home heating oil the match will just go out. (DO NOT TRY THIS AT HOME.) An oil burner uses a high voltage spark to ignite heating oil after the oil has been pressurized to 100 to 120 psi and then atomized by passing through the oil burner nozzle.
#4 fuel oil (bunker oil) is used in large stationary engines, power plants, and very large commercial boilers
RM oil is used as fuel by diesel locomotives and is a mix of #4 and #2 oils with some other refining differences
#6 oil is used to make asphalt for paving

What this all means is that the heavier petroleum based fuels (higher numbers) have longer hydrocarbon chains than the lower number fuels, they have more BTUs per gallon, they will be more viscous (and often dirtier or will contain more contaminants including environment-polluting sulphur).

It is not helpful to order and burn Kerosene #1 over #2 fuel oil except in outdoor aboveground oil tanks in areas subject to temperatures below 16 degF.

Definitions of Octane and Septane

It is helpful to understand why we talk about septane ratings for diesel fuel rather than diesel fuel octane ratings. Octane ratings for fuels focus on how smoothly the fuel burns, not its energy content.

Octane ratings are important for high compression engines such as many modern gasoline engine-driven automobiles because under high compression a lower-octane fuel will not burn evenly, causing knocking (or detonation, knocking means that there is partial and uneven "premature-explosion" of parts of the fuel charge) that can actually damage an engine. Common octane boosters include MTBE, ETBE, isooctane, toluene, and previously, lead.

Octane: eight carbon atoms in molecular structure

Septane: seven carbon atoms in molecular structure - see Heptane just below.

Heptane: is the zero point of the octane rating scale.
Heptane is "any one of several isometric hydrocarbons, C7H16, of the paraffin series (nine are possible, four are known); - so called because the molecule has seven carbon atoms. Specifically, a colorless liquid, found as a constituent of petroleum, in the tar oil of cannel coal, etc." - Websters Dictionary

Iso-Octane: is the 100 point on the octane rating scale

A simplified explanation of the difference in these measures is that octane rating describes how evenly a fuel burns, not how easily it ignites, or according to some sources (since a more even burning fuel may be harder to ignite), octane measures how hard it is to ignite a fuel while septane rating measures how easy it is to ignite a hydrocarbon fuel.

In other words, a higher octane fuel is harder to ignite, but burns more evenly than a fuel that is similar but lower in octane.

Problems With Heating System Reliability When Heating Oil Additives are Used or Low-Level Oil Tanks are Filled

When we serviced and installed heating equipment we often recommended use of heating oil additives to remove small amounts of water or sludge in oil storage tanks, or to act as a pour point depressant for outdoor aboveground oil storage tanks. But while these are good products, things didn't always go well. We discuss the problem of sludge in heating oil tanks, lines, filters, and oil burner nozzles in more detail at Oil Tank Sludge Problems & Solutions

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about different types of petroleum based fuels

Question: How to distinguish between K1 kerosene and #2 No2 home heating oil

I have a question I just can't find the answer to anywhere. I work for an oil company that delivers home heating oil. We usually haul K1 kerosene and #2 heating oil at the same time. And we run several trucks. Both these fuels are dyed red. And we are "often" in a situation where we don't know if a truck compartment has K1 or #2 oil in it. They look virtually the same. How can you tell one from the other? Please respond to this question. Thank you, L.M.

Reply: Identifying petroleum fuels by density or specific gravity or by their waxing point at cold temperatures: using a hydrometer

K1 (kerosene) and No.2 home heating oil look the same, and indeed a mix of K1 and No.2 is sold by some oil companies for use in outside home heating oil tanks to avoid waxing or jelling problems in cold weather.

These two fuels look the same to the naked eye, they smell about the same, and are from a very similar origin in the oil refining process (K1 is lighter and comes off before No. 2 heating oil during the refining process). And as we explain in the oil fuels article above, the I.R.S. requires a red dye in tax-exempt diesel fuel such as that used for home heating.

With that background, I can think of two ways that one can, without very sophisticated analysis, distinguish between kerosene and No. 2 home heating oil.

Fuel density or specific gravity: Kerosene vs. home heating oil

Density or specific gravity measurements are made on a scale that uses the density of water as a comparison point. Water has a density of 1 gram/cm3 at 4 degF. That's our yardstick. A suitable hydrometer can measure a liquid’s specific gravity. A hydrometer is a hollow, sealed, calibrated glass tube, a float, and a scale.

An old hydrometer that was very common was one used to check the antifreeze in an automobile. The hydrometer had a rubber bulb on one end and intake on its open end. The bulb was squeezed to suck antifreeze mix into the tube where the float would rise to mark a point on a scale. The scale in that hydrometer was printed to report common densities of the water-antifreeze mix that in turn would read out the lowest temperature at which the mix would remain unfrozen.

In sum, the depth to which the hydrometer sinks is inversely proportional to the liquid’s specific gravity. So all we need is help from an equipment supplier who can sell you a hydrometer with the proper weight and scale to read the specific gravity or density range of heating oils or kerosene. A quick sample and a quick read on the scale and you'll know what you've got.

You can see from our table below that with only a very small chance of overlap, the specific gravity or density of kerosene averages about 0.81 while No. 2 heating oil will be around 0.90.

There are two types of hydrometers: the rubber bulb and suction tube type I described above (used for antifreeze testing in my example) and a simpler float with a graduated scale, or a "float hydrometer".

To use a bulb hydrometer you simply use the suction bulb to draw a liquid sample up into the tube sufficient to float the float and read the scale.

To use a float hydrometer you put your liquid sample into a clean glass container (such as a beaker) and place the floating hydrometer into the liquid with its scale rod pointing down and its weighted bulb "down". Depending on the density of the liquid the hydrometer will sink to a particular depth. You will be able to read the specific gravity or density of your liquid sample right on the scale of the float hydrometer's rod.

Where to buy a hydrometer and what type of hydrometer to purchase

Hydrometers are not expensive: you'll find models under $10.00 U.S. You'll find them online from many suppliers as well as in stores such as WalMart and even some grocery stores. But see our warning just below.

Watch out: for testing petroleum products like kerosene or heating oil, when you buy a hydrometer you'll want one whose scale reads from one and below - since we are reading the density of liquids that will be less than water. (By the way, that's why water that leaks into an oil tank is found at the tanks' bottom - the water is heavier than the heating oil so sinks below it to rest on the tank bottom.)

You do not want a wine making hydrometer for oil product testing as the scale won't serve our purposes. A wine making hydrometer such as the nice Rite-Brew model has a scale of .990 - 1.160 - no good for our purposes. But some multi-scale hydrometers may indeed work fine for our needs.

For measuring oil products you will want to find a "Low-STK" lab-grade hydrometer that measures specific gravities less than 1, i.e. in the range of our chart below - noting that all of the measurements will be at numbers less than one and more than 0.6.

Suppliers of petroleum hydrometers useful for the petroleum industry include

Brannon hydrometer for petroleum density ranges, Fisher Scientific, website: http://www.fishersci.com
Stevenson Reeves, Ltd., a U.K. company, 40 Oxgangs Bank, Edinburgh, Scotland, EH13 9LH phone +44 (0)131 445-7151 website: http://www.stevenson-reeves.co.uk/hydrometers/LAOP.htm "BS 718 hydrometers in the SP series are available in ranges measuring from 0.600 to 1.100 g/ml at 15°C."
Search the web for buy hydrometer for petroleum products - you'll find a stunning number of suppliers of hydrometers calibrated in the range needed for examining kerosene, home heating oil, diesel fuel, etc.

Table of Specific Gravity of Common Petroleum-Based Fuels

Petroleum Product (or other)	Specific Gravity	Gravity API	Viscosity, SSU @ 100° F.	Cloud Point
Gasoline	0.71 - 0.79
Kerosene	0.78 - 0.81 [3]	40	33	-40 F
Diesel Fuel Oil	0.82 - 0.95	37	35	16 F to -15F
Home Heating Oil	0.82 - 0.95	34	35	16 F to -15F
Heavy Fuel Oil	0.92 - 0.99
Water	1
Notes: if purchasing a hydrometer to test petroleum products be sure the unit you buy measures in the specific gravity ranges shown above.

Fuel waxing under cold conditions: kerosene vs. home heating oil identification by the friedman freezer test

The cloud point for a petroleum product or fuel is generally described as the temperature at which small solid crystals are first visually observed as the fuel cools. This is the point at which the flow of the fuel through piping and equipment begins to be affected. "Cold filter plugging" is the point at which a fuel filter (or heating oil tubing or filter) will plug and fuel will cease to flow. This is a lower temperature than the cloud point. But here we just care about the visible cloud point in heating oil and kerosene.

Kerosene has a lower cloud point, waxing point or pour point than No. 2 home heating oil.

No. 2 home heating oil or diesel fuel waxing or clouding or gelling begins to occur when the liquid heating oil reaches about -9 degC or about 16 degF. (Clouding can occur typically between 8 degF above zero down to 15 degF. below.)
Kerosene waxing, clouding, or gell point: (much lower thank No.2 home heating oil, as low as -40 F.) [8]

Laboratory testing to measure the cloud point for heating oil, diesel fuel, or kerosene typically uses very precise measurements of temperature and short-range infrared transillumination. But we can take a more crude approach for distinguishing between kerosene and heating oil:

I'll bet that you could put a small container of kerosene and another of heating oil into a freezer and check them every fifteen minutes. The first one to become waxy and solid is the No. 2 home heating oil. I just made this up, so I've named it accordingly. [Experts' comments or suggestions are invited. CONTACT us.]

Details about waxing in home heating oil, the definition of pour point, and a discussion of oil waxing problems and solutions are found at HEATING OIL CLOUD WAX GEL POINT

Watch out: don't forget about your test subjects in the freezer or there is some chance that a container may break therein and make a mess. Or use a clear plastic container to hold each sample. You want to be able to easily see the wax forming.

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Questions & answers or comments about different types of petroleum based fuels: kerosene, home heating oil, jet fuel, diesel fuel, etc. .

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Technical Reviewers & References

Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.

[1] From the following reference, edited: http://www.impalassforum.com/vBulletin/showthread.php?t=184909
[2] Kerosene Blending, U.S. EPA, web search 12/2/2011, original source: http://www.epa.gov/diesel
/presentations/keroseneblding.pdf
[3] Kerosene properties, Wikipedia, web search 12/2/2011
[4] Procedure for measuring the cloud point of petroleum products, Wikipedia, web search 12/2/2011 - Quoting:

The test oil is required to be transparent in layers 40mm in thickness (in accordance with ASTM D2500). The wax crystals typically first form at the lower circumferential wall with the appearance of a whitish or milky cloud. The cloud point is the temperature at which these crystals first appear.

The test sample is first poured into a test jar to a level approximately half full. A cork carrying the test thermometer is used to close the jar. The thermometer bulb is positioned to rest at the bottom of the jar. The entire test subject is then placed in a constant temperature cooling bath on top of a gasket to prevent excessive cooling.

At every 1°C, the sample is taken out and inspected for cloud then quickly replaced. Successively lower temperature cooling baths may be used depending on the cloud point. Lower temperature cooling bath must have temperature stability not less than 1.5 K for this test.
[5] Kerosene effects on B20 Fuel & Cloud Point, Department of Transportation, Ohio, web search 12/2/2011, original source: http://www.dot.state.oh.us/Divisions/ConstructionMgt
/Materials/In%20House%20Research/Bio-Diesel-kerosene.pdf
[6] Cold-Flow, web search 12/2/2011, original source: http://www.biodiesel.org/
pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Cold%20Flow.PDF
[7] “Survey of Diesel Fuels and Aviation Kerosene’s From U.S. Military Installations”, Steven R. Westbrook (SwRI) and Maurice E. LePera (US Army TARDEC), 6th International Conference on Stability and Handling of Liquid Fuels, October 13-17, 1997, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
[8] Fuel Gelling Challenges - Technology Solutions, Phase Technology, November 2003 Phase Technology, 11168 Hammersmith Gate, Richmond BC V7A 5H8 Canada, website: www.phase-technology.com web search 12/2/2011, original source: http://www.promiles.com/PhaseTech/Fuel%20
Gelling%20Challenges%20Technology%20solutions%20v.1.pdf
“Low-Temperature Properties of Triglyceride-Based Diesel Fuels: Transesterified Methyl Esters and Petroleum Middle Distillate/Ester Blends”, Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, JAOCS, Vol. 72, No. 8 (1995).
“Cold Flow Properties of Biodiesel and Biodiesel Blends – A Review of Data”, Ken Bickell, University of Minnesota Center for Diesel Research
Jet Fuel Characteristics, web search 12/2/2011, original source: http://www.smartcockpit.com/data/pdfs/flightops/
aerodynamics/Jet_Fuel_Characteristics.pdf
Studies of Jet Fuel Freezing by Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Cold-Stage Microscopy J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power -- January 2003 -- Volume 125, Issue 1, 34 (6 pages) doi:10.1115/1.1492836
Thanks to irate reader, James Ferguson, who suggested we correct and clarify which diesel fuels are dyed and which are not - January 2009.
Thanks to aerospace engineer Herman Vogel, July 2010, (also see COMPLETE COMBUSTION, Stoichiometric) for suggesting that

Gents, under Oil Fuel Types & Characteristics; at #1 fuel oil you state:
“has a higher septane rating and contains fewer BTU’s per gallon than #2 heating oil.”
Yet under Diesel Fuel Winter Blend you state:
“combines Diesel fuel (#2 fuel oil) with about 10% to 20% #1 fuel oil … The septane rating of winter blend will usually be below [above] regular diesel fuel unless a septane booster additive is added”
You obviously meant to say “above” since adding a higher septane #1 fuel to a lower septane #2 fuel, makes the mixture higher in septane!
Also see Wikipedia definitions of use of dye in diesel fuels. Wikipedia lists the different colors of dye used in diesel fuels in various countries and applications.
Kemp, Kenneth W.; Brown, Theodore; Nelson, John D. (2003). Chemistry: the central science. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall. pp. 992. ISBN 0-13-066997-0.
"Diesel Fuel Dye, Required by the I.R.S., Poses Risk to Jet Engines, Some Experts Say", Matthew L. Wald & Pamela K. Browne, New York Times, April 27, 1997 "The effects of the dye are not clear, but tests indicate that even minute amounts in engines can be heated into a tar like substance that clogs fuel nozzles in the engines. The contamination can be almost infinitesimal. Only 11 parts of dye per million parts of diesel fuel - the recipe required by the Internal Revenue Service - turn the fuel cherry red. But jet fuel is considered contaminated when it has even the slightest pinkish tinge instead of its normal color; somewhere between water and white wine" The article continues "The Boeing Company warned its customers in a letter last November that "the likelihood of a major airport shutdown because of red dye contamination in jet fuel is a serious concern for the aviation industry
Power Service Products, P.O. Box 1089, Weatherford, Texas 76086, 1-800-643-9089, email: psp@powerservice.com, markets a diesel fuel additive to prevent waxing or cold filter plugging point, Diesel 9.1.1® web search 07/26/2010 original source http://www.powerservice.com/d911/default.asp?view=app
Websters online dictionary, web search 07/26/2010 - original source: http://www.webster-dictionary.org/definition/heptane

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.

The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, 2010, $69.00 U.S., is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. InspectAPedia.com ^® author/editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume.

Carbon Monoxide Gas Toxicity, exposure limits, poisoning symptoms, and inspecting buildings for CO hazards
DUST, HVAC CONTAMINATION STUDY An Investigation of Indoor Dust Debris Blamed on a Heating/Cooling System Reveals Carpet Dust
Fuel Oil & Oil Heating Magazine, 3621 Hill Rd., Parsippany, NJ 07054, 973-331-9545
Goodman Furnace High Temperature Plastic Vent HTPV safety recall US CPSC notice
Home Heating System Should Be Checked [for proper venting and for CO Carbon Monoxide Hazards - DJF]
Inspection Procedures for Oil-Fired Heating Systems Detailed step by step approaches for inspecting complex systems]
Lennox Pulse Furnace Safety Inspection/Warranty Program: Carbon Monoxide Warning
Oil Tanks - The Oil Storage Tank Information Website: Buried or Above Ground Oil Tank Inspection, Testing, Cleanup, Abandonment of Oil Tanks
Oil Tanks Above Ground, UL Standards, guidance for home owners, buyers, and inspectors
Plastic Heating Vent Pipe & Other Heating Safety Recall Notices
Weil McLain Model GV Gas Boiler/gas valve CPSC recall/repair
Domestic and Commercial Oil Burners, Charles H. Burkhardt, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York 3rd Ed 1969.
National Fuel Gas Code (Z223.1) $16.00 and National Fuel Gas Code Handbook (Z223.2) $47.00 American Gas Association (A.G.A.), 1515 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22209 also available from National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269. Fundamentals of Gas Appliance Venting and Ventilation, 1985, American Gas Association Laboratories, Engineering Services Department. American Gas Association, 1515 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22209. Catalog #XHO585. Reprinted 1989.
The Steam Book, 1984, Training and Education Department, Fluid Handling Division, ITT [probably out of print, possibly available from several home inspection supply companies] Fuel Oil and Oil Heat Magazine, October 1990, offers an update,
Principles of Steam Heating, $13.25 includes postage. Fuel oil & Oil Heat Magazine, 389 Passaic Ave., Fairfield, NJ 07004.
The Lost Art of Steam Heating, Dan Holohan, 516-579-3046 FAX
Principles of Steam Heating, Dan Holohan, technical editor of Fuel Oil and Oil Heat magazine, 389 Passaic Ave., Fairfield, NJ 07004 ($12.+1.25 postage/handling).
"Residential Steam Heating Systems", Instructional Technologies Institute, Inc., 145 "D" Grassy Plain St., Bethel, CT 06801 800/227-1663 [home inspection training material] 1987
"Residential Hydronic (circulating hot water) Heating Systems", Instructional Technologies Institute, Inc., 145 "D" Grassy Plain St., Bethel, CT 06801 800/227-1663 [home inspection training material] 1987
"Warm Air Heating Systems". Instructional Technologies Institute, Inc., 145 "D" Grassy Plain St., Bethel, CT 06801 800/227-1663 [home inspection training material] 1987
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Volume I, Heating Fundamentals,
Boilers, Boiler Conversions, James E. Brumbaugh, ISBN 0-672-23389-4 (v. 1) Volume II, Oil, Gas, and Coal Burners, Controls, Ducts, Piping, Valves, James E. Brumbaugh, ISBN 0-672-23390-7 (v. 2) Volume III, Radiant Heating, Water Heaters, Ventilation, Air Conditioning, Heat Pumps, Air Cleaners, James E. Brumbaugh, ISBN 0-672-23383-5 (v. 3) or ISBN 0-672-23380-0 (set) Special Sales Director, Macmillan Publishing Co., 866 Third Ave., New York, NY 10022. Macmillan Publishing Co., NY
Installation Guide for Residential Hydronic Heating Systems
Installation Guide #200, The Hydronics Institute, 35 Russo Place, Berkeley Heights, NJ 07922
The ABC's of Retention Head Oil Burners, National Association of Oil Heat Service Managers, TM 115, National Old Timers' Association of the Energy Industry, PO Box 168, Mineola, NY 11501. (Excellent tips on spotting problems on oil-fired heating equipment. Booklet.)
Links to our list of additional information on heating system inspection, repair, maintenance
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