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This document lists building code specifications for stairs, railings, landings, and guardrails - information useful for constructing or inspecting indoor or outdoor stairs, railings, landings, & treads, and for evaluating stairways and railings for safety and proper construction. If you don't see information you want, ask us for it using the comments box on this page.

Also see RAILINGS, DECK & PORCH where we provide deck, porch, and retaining wall safety railing design and building code details. Having investigated cases of severe injury related to falls and railing collapses we developed this field data collection checklist. We also include references to key documents on building codes and stair and railing safety. DECK COLLAPSE Case Study describes a catastrophic exterior deck collapse.

© Copyright 2012 InspectAPedia.com, All Rights Reserved. Information Accuracy & Bias Pledge is at below-left. Use page top links to major topics or use links at the left of each page to navigate within topics and documents at this website. Green links show where you are in a document series or at this website.

Guide to Building Codes for Stairs & Railings, Stair Landings & Guardrails

Below we illustrate and summarize typical building code requirements for stairs, railings, landings, and guardrails. Links at page left provide detailed descriptions of each stair feature, building codes, photographs and sketches of defects and requirements. Text comparing key provisions of several building code sections on stairs and rails is given at the end of this document.

Stairway, Railing, Landing Basic Dimensions & Rules

Stair Guardrail, Newell Post & Baluster Specifications

Guards or guard rails referred to in stair codes and specifications refer to the safety barrier placed along the open sides of a horizontal walking surface such as a landing, balcony, deck, or porch. The equivalent safety barrier placed along a stairway itself is discussed at Railings on Stairways

Outdoor Guardrails - on Double Retaining Walls

Using a local building code citation from Glen Cove, New York, for outdoor double-retaining walls outdoors, the lower retaining wall is 48" in height, the space between the retaining walls is four feet or more, and the top of the wall is 24" high. -- Richard Kralstein

See RAILINGS, DECK & PORCH where we provide deck, porch, and retaining wall safety railing design and building code details. There we cite several building codes that require safety railings at outdoor retaining walls, and we express the opinion that seating or a "seat wall" does not provide the equivalent safety as a properly constructed railing.

Also see Exterior stairs.

Balusters for Guards & Railings

Stair Railing Specifications

Railings in stair codes and specifications refer to the safety barrier along steps or stairs. Also see Guards for details about safety railings on landings and open hallways, porches, screened porches, balconies - horizontal walking surfaces.

Stair Handrail Dimensions & Shape Specifications

Clarification on Handrails and Guardrails

Clarification from Residential exit doors, stairways, landings, handrails and guards for New York:

RCNYS section R315 requires stairways having two or more risers to have at least one handrail, at a height of between 34 and 38 inches above the nosing.

There must be a clearance of at least 1 ½ inches behind wall mounted handrails. Handrails must be continuous from a point above the top riser to a point above the lowest riser of each flight of stairs.

This would allow a newel post to be attached to the face of the bottom riser, with half of its base resting on the bottom tread.

Exceptions to R315.1 involving newel posts are contained in the original ICC version of the code and have been issued as a clarification to the RCNYS and are effective as follows:

Exceptions:

1. Handrails shall be permitted to be interrupted by a newel post at a turn.

2. The use of a volute, turnout or starting newel shall be allowed over the lowest tread.

The section of a stairway leading from one landing to the next is a flight of stairs. Therefore, handrails are not required on landings. Continuous handrails are required on the side of where the tread is narrower for winders. The maximum variation in riser height and tread width is 3/8 inches to maintain uniformity in the flight. Handrail grips may be circular, 1 ¼ to 2 inches in diameter.

If they are not circular the perimeter of the sides must total 4 to 6 ¼ inches with a maximum cross-section dimension of 2 ¼ inches. When the total perimeter of the sides exceeds 6 ¼ inches, a graspable finger recess complying with section R315.2 must be provided on both sides of the handrail. There are no dimensional provisions for newels.

Guards [guardrails] are required by section R316 for open sides of stairways, porches, balconies or raised floor surfaces located more than 30 inches above the floor or grade below, except for open sides of a flight of stairs with a total rise of 30 inches or less, although handrails are still required when there are two or more risers.

Guards protecting floor surfaces must be 36 inches in height, while guards for stairs must be 34 inches in height measured vertically from the tread nosing.

A guard may also serve as the required handrail (34 to 38 inches high) provided the top rail meets the requirements for grip size. The guard must have intermediate rails or ornamental closures that do not allow the passage of a 4-inch diameter sphere. The triangular openings formed by the riser, tread and bottom rail of the guard must be sized to prevent the passage of a 6-inch sphere.

Stair Riser Specifications

An exception is permitted::

Where the bottom or top riser adjoins a sloping public way, walkway or driveway having an established grade and serving as a landing, the bottom or top riser is permitted to be reduced along the slope to less than 4 inches (102 mm) in height with the variation in height of the bottom or top riser not to exceed one unit vertical in 12 units horizontal (8-percent slope) of stairway width.

The nosings or leading edges of treads at such nonuniform height risers shall have a distinctive marking stripe, different from any other nosing marking provided on the stair flight. The distinctive marking stripe shall be visible in descent of the stair and shall have a slip-resistant surface. Marking stripes shall have a width of at least 1 inch (25 mm) but not more than 2 inches (51 mm).

Stair Stringer Slope - determines overall slope of the stair assembly

While individual stair riser heights and tread dimensions determine the walking comfort and safety of stairs and stairways, here are some typical overall slope specifications that characterize different types of building entrances and exits.

• Acessible stairs, slope 30 to 32.5 deg.
• Access ramps, slope 0 to 20 deg, prefer 7 to 15 degrees of slope
• Egress stairs and accessible egress stairs for primary emergency exit from a building, slope 30-32.5 deg.
• Fire escape stairs (for emergency use only, not intended for normal use to enter or exit the building), slope 30-50 deg.
• Industrial egress stairs, slope 25 to 32.5 deg. These stairs are intended for areas occupied only by trained people such as building maintenance staff, not for public access
• Limited access stairs (fixed industrial stairs), slope 30 to 50 deg. (utility stairs, stairs to access mechanical systems, etc)

Stair Tread Specifications

Stair Step Treads

See details about stair step tread codes and specs at Step tread dimensions. A summary is below.

• Step tread depth (=> 10") (measured 12" from smaller side of irregular stair shapes such as triangular treads on curves or spirals) [Stair tread depth is the horizontal distance from the nose of the tread to the back edge of the tread (where a vertical riser or open space may be found).
• Step tread depth uniformity (<= 3/8" variation)
• Stair tread depth for winder stairs (>= 6" at smallest point)
• Stair tread uniformity for winder stairs at the 12" walk-line (<= 3/8" variation)
• Stair tread slope (out of level on walking surface) - (slope or "rise" must be <= 1 in 48) -- Source: IRC

Reader comment:

[The above specification of allowable variation in stair tread slope] was probably taken from the chapter on Means of Egress, in which case it is applicable to a means of egress, and not stairs outside the means of egress, like in a public way. It is very hard to maintain such tolerances for exterior sidewalks and public ways. At least I think that is the way it is in the IBC. I am not a code official, however, and I know they may see things differently. - J.M., AIA

Note: the above discusses stair treads and does not refer to sidewalks - Ed. CONTACT us to suggest building code citations or stair tread specifications that vary from these. Also Stair Tread Slope below

2008 New York State Stair Code R311.5.3.2: Tread depth.

The minimum [stair] tread depth shall be 9 inches (229 mm). The tread depth shall be measured horizontally between the vertical planes of the foremost projection of adjacent treads and at a right angle to the tread's leading edge. The greatest tread depth within any flight of stairs shall not exceed the smallest by more than 3/8 inch (9.5 mm).

Winder treads shall have a minimum tread depth of 10 inches (254 mm) measured as above at a point 12 inches (305) mm from the side where the treads are narrower. Winder treads shall have a minimum tread depth of 6 inches (152 mm) at any point. Within any flight of stairs, the greatest winder tread depth at the 12 inch (305 mm) walk line shall not exceed the smallest by more than 3/8 inch (9.5 mm). (Courtesy Arlene Puentes).

Another Stair Code Example - Source BOCA 2001 stair construction code details:

• Stair riser heights shall be 7 inches (178 mm) maximum and 4 inches (102 mm) minimum.
• Stair tread depths shall be 11 inches (279 mm) minimum. The riser height shall be measured vertically between the leading edges of adjacent treads. The stair tread depth shall be measured horizontally between the vertical planes of the foremost projection of adjacent treads and at right angle to the tread's leading edge.

Stair Step Tread Nose

See details about stair step or tread nose specifications at Stair tread nose dimensions. A summary is below.

• Tread nose projection past vertical riser below (3/4" to 1 1/2") required on stairs with solid risers (exceptions are below)
• Tread nose projection uniformity (<= 3/8" variation)
• Tread nose curve radius (=< 9/16")
• Tread Nose not required if tread depth is => 11"
• Tread Nose not required on open stair treads (open riser)

1009.3.2 Profile. The radius of curvature at the leading edge of the tread shall be not greater than 0.5 inch (12.7 mm). Beveling of nosings shall not exceed 0.5 inch (12.7 mm). Risers shall be solid and vertical or sloped from the underside of the leading edge of the tread above at an angle not more than 30 degrees (0.52 rad) from the vertical. The leading edge (nosings) of treads shall project not more than 1.25 inches (32 mm) beyond the tread below and all projections of the leading edges shall be of uniform size, including the leading edge of the floor at the top of a flight.

2008 New York State Stair Code R311.5.3.3: Stair Tread [nose] Profile.

The radius of curvature at the leading edge of the [stair] tread shall be no greater than 9 / 16 inch (14.3 mm). A nosing not less than 3/4 inch (19 mm) but not more than 1 1/4 inch (32 mm) shall be provided on stairways with solid risers.

The greatest [stair tread] nosing projection shall not exceed the smallest nosing projection by more than 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) between two stories, including the nosing at the level of floors and landings.

Beveling of [stair tread] nosing shall not exceed 1 / 2 inch (12.7 mm). Risers shall be vertical or sloped from the underside of the leading edge of the tread above at an angle not more than 30 (0.51 rad) degrees from the vertical.

Open risers are permitted, provided that the opening between treads does not permit the passage of a 4-inch diameter (102 mm) sphere.

Exceptions [to stair tread nose requirements]:

A nosing is not required where the tread depth is a minimum of 11 inches (279 mm). >

The opening between adjacent treads is not limited on stairs with a total rise of 30 inches (762 mm) or less

Another Stair Code Example of stair tread nose profile and projection - BOCA 2001.

• Stair tread nose projection missing or wrong dimension: (falling hazard on descending) or tread nose extends out too far over tread (risk splitting off or trip on climbing up). Example: A nosing not less than 0.75 inch (19.1 mm) but not more than 1.25 inches (32 mm) shall be provided on stairways with solid risers where the tread depth is less than 11 inches (279 mm). - BOCA 2001.

Clarification of Stair width, handrail height, handrail projection, stairway width

Clarification from Residential exit doors, stairways, landings, handrails and guards for New York:

Stairways are regulated by section R314 and include winders, spiral stairs, circular stairs, and bulkhead enclosure stairs. Stairways shall be not less than 36 inches in clear width at all points above the handrail height and the handrail may project no more than 4 ½ inches on either side of the stairway.

Thus, the minimum clear width of a stairway at or below the handrail, when one is required, is 31 ½ inches, and 27 inches where two are required. Stair trim, stringers and other features may reduce the stairway width as long as they do not extend beyond the allowable handrail projection. There is a width exception for spiral stairways. The maximum riser height is 8 ¼ inches and the minimum tread depth is 9 inches.

Open risers are permitted provided the vertical opening between treads does not permit the passage of a 4-inch-diameter sphere in stairways which have a rise exceeding 30 inches. The minimum headroom is 6 feet, 8 inches measured vertically from a sloped plane along the tread nosings or from the floor or landing surface.

Stair Tread Slope, Drainage, & Stair Tread Anti-Slip or Coefficient of Friction Requirement for Safe Walking Surfaces

1009.5.1 Stairway walking surface. The walking surface of treads and landings of a stairway shall not be sloped steeper than one unit vertical in 48 units horizontal (2-percent slope) in any direction. Stairway treads and landings shall have a solid surface. Finish floor surfaces shall be securely attached.

Exception: In Group F, H and S occupancies, other than areas of parking structures accessible to the public, openings in treads and landings shall not be prohibited provided a sphere with a diameter of 1¹/₈ inches (29 mm) cannot pass through the opening.

Relevant to the slipperiness of stairs is this outside stair provision

1009.5.2 Outdoor conditions. Outdoor stairways and outdoor approaches to stairways shall be designed so that water will not accumulate on walking surfaces. In other than occupancies in Group R-3, and occupancies in Group U that are accessory to an occupancy in Group R-3, treads, platforms and landings that are part of exterior stairways in climates subject to snow or ice shall be protected to prevent the accumulation of same.

[Not found in NYS Code] - A walking-surface that provides a coefficient of friction of 1.02 dry and 0.98 wet will comply with ADA, OSHA, and most local building codes and insurance requirements. This requirement is reiterated in our summary of Canadian OSH stairway rules below.

Stair Platform or Landing Specifications

1009.4 Stairway landings. There shall be a floor or landing at the top and bottom of each stairway. The width of landings shall not be less than the width of stairways they serve. Every landing shall have a minimum dimension measured in the direction of travel equal to the width of the stairway. Such dimension need not exceed 48 inches (1219 mm) where the stairway has a straight run.

Clarification from Residential exit doors, stairways, landings, handrails and guards for New York:

Section R312 requires a floor or landing at the top and bottom of each stairway and on each side of each exterior door. The exception provides that on all exterior doors, except the required main exit door, where there are two or fewer risers, a landing is not required.

Section R312.1.2 also provides that at the required main exit door, the landing be no more than 1 ½ inches lower than the top of the threshold, while landings at all other exterior doorways may be as much as 8 ¼ inches lower than the threshold.

However, the State Fire Prevention and Building Code Council amended this section in 19 NYCRR section 1220.3, effective July 10, 2003, as follows:

Landings at required exit doors. In lieu of compliance with section R312.1.2 of the Residential Code of New York State, an exit door required by section R311.1 of the Residential Code of New York State may have an exterior landing which is not more than 8 ¼ inches (209 mm) below the top of the threshold.

With this amendment, there is no longer a requirement that the level of the landing outside the required main exit door be limited to no more than 1 ½ inches below the threshold. Additionally, landings have to be at least as wide as the door or stairway and at least 36 inches long measured in the direction of travel.

And from the same document

Landings are required on the exterior side of a sliding glass door when served by a stair having more than two risers. A 6-0 x 6-8 sliding door (even if it is an emergency escape and rescue opening required in a sleeping room) is still a door and requires a landing per section R312.1.2. Considering only the operable part of the sliding door, the width of the landing does not need exceed 36 inches. It would also be permitted to install a guard on the exterior of the sliding door in lieu of the required landing and stairs when the door threshold is more than 30 inches above grade.

Building Code for Stairway Lighting Requirements

Code Specifications for Stairs that are Curved, Circular, Spiral, or Angled, & Winder Stairs

Sketch at above right, courtesy Carson Dunlop.

Circular & Spiral Stair Codes

See added details about winder stairs, circular stairs, or spiral staircases at Winder stairs. A summary is below.

1009.7 Circular stairways. Circular stairways shall have a minimum tread depth and a maximum riser height in accordance with Section 1009.3 and the smaller radius shall not be less than twice the width of the stairway. The minimum tread depth measured 12 inches (305 mm) from the narrower end of the tread shall not be less than 11 inches (279 mm). The minimum tread depth at the narrow end shall not be less than 10 inches (254 mm).

1009.9 Spiral stairways. Spiral stairways are permitted to be used as a component in the means of egress only within dwelling units or from a space not more than 250 square feet (23 m²) in area and serving not more than five occupants, or from galleries, catwalks and gridirons in accordance with Section 1014.6.

A spiral stairway shall have a 7.5-inch (191 mm) minimum clear tread depth at a point 12 inches (305 mm) from the narrow edge. The risers shall be sufficient to provide a headroom of 78 inches (1981 mm) minimum, but riser height shall not be more than 9.5 inches (241 mm). The minimum stairway width shall be 26 inches (660 mm).

Stairway winders As the sketch, courtesy Carson Dunlop, shows, only one set of winders should be allowed in a staircase, and the dimensions shown address tripping hazards.

Alternating Tread Stair Codes

1009.10 Alternating tread devices. Alternating tread devices are limited to an element of a means of egress in buildings of Groups F, H and S from a mezzanine not more than 250 square feet (23 m2) in area and which serves not more than five occupants; in buildings of Group I-3 from a guard tower, observation station or control room not more than 250 square feet (23 m2) in area and for access to unoccupied roofs.

Open or Closed Stair Tread Codes

Stairway Height, Width, Headroom Code Specifications & Requirements

• Stairway headroom (=> 6'8" over tread or landing) Stairways shall have a minimum headroom clearance of 80 inches (2032 mm) measured vertically from a line connecting the edge of the nosings.
  
  Such headroom shall be continuous above the stairway to the point where the line intersects the landing below, one tread depth beyond the bottom riser. T
  
  he minimum clearance shall be maintained the full width of the stairway and landing. - NYS
• Headroom is allowed to be reduced to 78" over spiral stairs in some codes such as New York State.
  
• Stairway maximum height (<= 12' between floors - this means landings could be required)

Sketch showing stairwell width and landing details is provided courtesy Carson Dunlop Associates.

Stairwell width and stair landing platform requirements are summarized by this sketch.

The minimum recommended stair width is between 34" and 36" ACROSS.

The minimum recommended stair landing length is 36" (or a length and width sufficiently greater than the swing of the door if a wider door is present.

Notice that a stair top landing is not required if the door at the top of the stair opens away from the stairwell.

In these sketches required handrails have been omitted for clarity.

1009.1 Stairway width. The width of stairways shall be determined as specified in Section 1005.1, but such width shall not be less than 44 inches (1118 mm). See Section 1007.3 for accessible means of egress stairways.

Maximum Permitted Height for Stairways - between floors or landings

1009.6 Vertical rise. A flight of stairs shall not have a vertical rise greater than 12 feet (3658 mm) between floor levels or landings.

Stairway Fire Stopping Code Requirements

Fire stopping for stairs is required to slow the spread of building fires between floors and to assist in emergency exit. Sketch courtesy Carson Dunlop. Notes Comparing Building Codes Specifying Stair & Railing Requirements          Sample excerpts of sources which a building code compliance inspector would be expected to cite in support of requiring a properly-designed, properly-secured guard rail include but are not limited to the citations below.

2008 New York State Residential Building Code Stair Design Specifications

This building code update for stairway design specifications was provided courtesy Arlene Puentes.

R311.5.3.1 Stair Riser Height Codes

The maximum riser height shall be 8 1 / 4 inches (209 mm). The riser shall be measured vertically between leading edges of the adjacent treads. The greatest riser height within any flight of stairs shall not exceed the smallest by more than 3 / 8 inch (9.5 mm).

R311.5.3.2 Stair Tread Depth Code Requirements

The minimum tread depth shall be 9 inches (229 mm). The tread depth shall be measured horizontally between the vertical planes of the foremost projection of adjacent treads and at a right angle to the tread's leading edge.

The greatest tread depth within any flight of stairs shall not exceed the smallest by more than 3 / 8 inch (9.5 mm). Winder treads shall have a minimum tread depth of 10 inches (254 mm) measured as above at a point 12 inches (305) mm from the side where the treads are narrower.

Winder treads shall have a minimum tread depth of 6 inches (152 mm) at any point. Within any flight of stairs, the greatest winder tread depth at the 12 inch (305 mm) walk line shall not exceed the smallest by more than 3 / 8 inch (9.5 mm).

R311.5.3.3 Stair Tread Nose Profile Code Requirements

The radius of curvature at the leading edge of the tread shall be no greater than 9 / 16 inch (14.3 mm). A nosing not less than 3 / 4 inch (19 mm) but not more than 1 1 / 4 inch (32 mm) shall be provided on stairways with solid risers.

The greatest nosing projection shall not exceed the smallest nosing projection by more than 3 / 8 inch (9.5 mm) between two stories, including the nosing at the level of floors and landings.

Beveling of nosing shall not exceed 1 / 2 inch (12.7 mm). Risers shall be vertical or sloped from the underside of the leading edge of the tread above at an angle not more than 30 (0.51 rad) degrees from the vertical. Open risers are permitted, provided that the opening between treads does not permit the passage of a 4-inch diameter (102 mm) sphere.

Exceptions to Stair Tread Nose Requirements:

1.     A nosing is not required where the tread depth is a minimum of 11 inches (279 mm).

2.     The opening between adjacent treads is not limited on stairs with a total rise of 30 inches (762 mm) or less

Stair Tread Anti-Slip or Coefficient of Friction Requirement for Safe Walking Surfaces

[Not found in NYS Code]

A walking-surface that provides a coefficient of friction of 1.02 dry and 0.98 wet will comply with ADA, OSHA, and most local building codes and insurance requirements.

R311.5.8.1 Spiral Stairway Building Codes

Spiral stairways are permitted for interior use as a component of the means of egress from a habitable room, a basement or an attic, provided the minimum width shall be 26 inches (660 mm) with each tread having a 7 1 / 2 -inch (190 mm) minimum tread depth at 12 inches from the narrower edge.

All treads shall be identical, and the rise shall be no more than 9 1 / 2 inches (241 mm).

A minimum headroom of 6 feet 6 inches (1982 mm) shall be provided. A spiral stair is not permitted to be the only means of egress from a story of a building.

International Building Code 2000 (BOCA, ICBO, SBCCI) Stair & Railing Codes

1003.3.3.4 Stairway Landing Codes

There shall be a floor or landing at the top and bottom of each stairway. The width of landings shall not be less than the width of stairways they serve. Every landing shall have a minimum dimension measured in the direction of travel equal to the width of the stairway. Such dimension need not exceed 48 inches (1219 mm) where the stairway has a straight run.

1003.3.3.11.3 Handrail Grasp Ability Requirements

Handrails with a circular cross section shall have an outside diameter of at least 1.25 inches (32 mm) and not greater than 2 inches (51 mm) or shall provide equivalent grasp ability. If the handrail is not circular, it shall have a perimeter dimension of at least 4 inches (102 mm) and not greater than 6.25 inches (159 mm) with a maximum cross-section dimension of 2.25 inches (57 mm). Edges shall have a minimum radius of 0.125 inch (3.2 mm).

100333.11.4 Handrail or Guardrail Continuity

Handrail-gripping surfaces shall be continuous, without interruption by newel posts or other obstructions.

1607.7 Loads on Handrails, guards, grab bars and vehicle barriers

1607.7.1.1 Concentrated Load on Railings

Handrail assemblies and guards shall be able to resist a single concentrated load of 200 pounds (0.89kN), applied in any direction at any point along the top, and have attachment devices and supporting structure to transfer this loading to appropriate structural elements of the building.

1607.7.1.2 Component of Railings and Guardrails

Intermediate rails (all those except the handrail), balusters and panel fillers shall be designed to withstand a horizontally applied normal load of 50 pounds (0.22 kN) on an area not to exceed one square foot (305mm2) including openings and space between rails.

BOCA National Property Maintenance Code 1993

PM-305.5 Stairs and Railings in Good Condition

all interior stairs and railings shall be maintained in sound condition and good repair.

Commentary: Handrails, treads and risers must be structurally sound, firmly attached to the structure, and properly maintained to perform their intended function safely. During an inspection the code official should inspect all stringers, risers, treads, and handrails.

PM-305.6 Handrails and guards

Every handrail and guard shall be firmly fastened and capable of supporting normally imposed loads and shall be maintained in good condition.

Commentary: This section provides for the safety and maintenance of handrails and guards. See Section PM-702.9 for additional requirements.

PM-702.9 Stairways, handrails and guards

Every exterior and interior flight of stairs having more than four risers, and every open portion of a stair, landing or balcony which is more than 30 inches (762mm) high, nor more than 42 inches (1067mm) high, measured vertically above the nosing of the tread or above the finished floor of the landing or walking surfaces. Guards shall be not less than 30 inches (762mm) high above the floor of the landing or balcony.

Commentary: Handrails are required on all stairs more than four risers in height. Handrails cannot be less than 30 inches nor more than 42 inches above the nosing of the treads (see Figure PM-702.9).

Guards are required on the open side of stairs and on landings and balconies which are more than 30 inches above the floor or grade below. The guard must be at least 30 inches above the floor of the landing or balcony. Guards are to contain intermediate rails, balusters or other construction to reduce the chance of an adult or child from falling through the guard. If the guard is missing some intermediate rails or balustrades, it is recommended that the guard be repaired to its original condition if it will provide protection equivalent to the protection it provided when originally constructed.

OSHA Regulations for Temporary Stairs & Railings

STAIRWAYS - see OSHA at references

The following general requirements apply to all stairways used during the process of construction, as indicated:

• Stairways that will not be a permanent part of the structure on which construction work is performed must have landings at least 30 inches deep and 22 inches wide (76 x 56 cm) at every 12 feet (3.7 m) or less of vertical rise.
• Stairways must be installed at least 30 degrees, and no more than 50 degrees, from the horizontal.
• Variations in riser height or stair tread depth must not exceed 1/4 inch in any stairway system, including any foundation structure used as one or more treads of the stairs.
• Where doors or gates open directly onto a stairway, a platform must be provided that is at least 20 inches (51 cm) in width beyond the swing of the door.
• Metal pan landings and metal pan treads must be secured in place before filling.
• All stairway parts must be free of dangerous projections such as protruding nails.
• Slippery conditions on stairways must be corrected.
• Spiral stairways that will not be a permanent part of the structure may not be used by workers.

• Except during construction of the actual stairway, stairways with metal pan landings and treads must not be used where the treads and/or landings have not been filled in with concrete or other material, unless the pans of the stairs and/or landings are temporarily filled in with wood or other material. All treads and landings must be replaced when worn below the top edge of the pan.
• Except during construction of the actual stairway, skeleton metal frame structures and steps must not be used (where treads and/or landings are to be installed at a later date) unless the stairs are fitted with secured temporary treads and landings.
• Temporary treads must be made of wood or other solid material and installed the full width and depth of the stair.

OSHA Regulations for Stair Railings & Guardrails

STAIRRAILS AND HANDRAILS

The following general requirements apply to all stairrails and handrails:

• Stairways having four or more risers, or rising more than 30 inches (76 cm) in height, whichever is less, must have at least one handrail. A stairrail also must be installed along each unprotected side or edge. When the top edge of a stairrail system also serves as a handrail, the height of the top edge must not be more than 37 inches (94 cm) nor less than 36 inches (91.5 cm) from the upper surface of the stairrail to the surface of the tread.
• Winding or spiral stairways must be equipped with a handrail to prevent using areas where the tread width is less than 6 inches (15 cm).
• Stairrails installed after March 15, 1991, must not be less than 36 inches (91.5 cm) in height.
• Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent intermediate structural members must be provided between the top rail and stairway steps of the stairrail system.
• Midrails, when used, must be located midway between the top of the stairrail system and the stairway steps.
• Screens or mesh, when used, must extend from the top rail to the stairway step, and along the opening between top rail supports.
• Intermediate vertical members, such as balusters, when used, must not be more than 19 inches (48 cm) apart.
• Other intermediate structural members, when used, must be installed so that there are no openings of more than 19 inches (48 cm) wide.
• Handrails and the top rails of the stairrail systems must be capable of withstanding, without failure, at least 200 pounds (890 n) of weight applied within 2 inches (5 cm) of the top edge in any downward or outward direction, at any point along the top edge.
• The height of handrails must not be more than 37 inches (94 cm) nor less than 30 inches (76 cm) from the upper surface of the handrail to the surface of the tread.
• The height of the top edge of a stairrail system used as a handrail must not be more than 37 inches (94 cm) nor less than 36 inches (91.5 cm) ⁽¹⁾ from the upper surface of the stairrail system to the surface of the tread.
• Stairrail systems and handrails must be surfaced to prevent injuries such as punctures or lacerations and to keep clothing from snagging.
• Handrails must provide an adequate handhold for employees to grasp to prevent falls.
• The ends of stairrail systems and handrails must be constructed to prevent dangerous projections such as rails protruding beyond the end posts of the system.
• Temporary handrails must have a minimum clearance of 3 inches (8 cm) between the handrail and walls, stairrails systems, and other objects.
• Unprotected sides and edges of stairway landings must be provided with standard 42-inch (1.1 m) guardrail systems.

Canadian Occupational Safety Regulations - Stairways & Fall Prevention

Why do we need to worry so much about falls on stairs?

Stairs of all types have been used since ancient times, and because they are inherently hazardous, people have been falling on them, getting hurt or even killed in the process. In North America tens of people die and tens of thousand people get injured every year from the falls on stairs. The American National Council on Compensation Insurance estimated in 2001-2002 that the cost of such fall injuries was second only to those caused by motor vehicles.

The vast majority of stairway falls result from a loss of balance, just as falls are on the level. Please see the Canadian OSH Answers document on Prevention of Slips, Trips and Falls.

A very common contributing factor is neglecting to use handrails. The consequences can be quite nasty.

Because stairway accidents can cause severe injury and even death, building codes for stairs and ramps are justifiably very rigorous. Good design can substantially reduce the potential for mis-stepping by providing us with the means to retrieve our balance, but even the best design cannot eliminate falling hazards entirely. The need for proper design also applies to ramps. The fact is that some incidents can be caused by inattention and unsafe behaviour.

The best approach to minimize the hazard of falling down stairs is to encourage the building of well-designed stairways, combined with training focused on raising our awareness of the potential for disaster.

What factors must we consider in designing safer stairs?

Stair dimensions - Canadian Rules

Figure 1 shows the recommended dimension ranges for all the important elements of stairways. Figure 1: Legend A - Optimal range: 30º-35º B* - Handrail height: 80-96.5 cm C* - Riser height: 12.5-20 cm D* - Step width: 90 cm min. E* - Tread depth: 23.5-35.5 cm * Values are from the National Building Code of Canada (2005). Always check with your local jurisdiction as requirements are different in each area. The maximum range for a stair slope is 20º-50º. However, because the majority of people prefer a slope of 30º-35º, this is the recommended range. Steeper stairs change the way you climb them because the steeper they are the more effort you exert. The ratio of riser height and tread depth has to be adjusted accordingly. (See Figures 2 and 3)

From: Kodak's ergonomic design for people at work. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2004. p.244

The dimension of risers or treads in a stairway should not vary more than 1 cm. When doors open directly into the stairwell, a 50 cm-wide platform should be provided beyond the swing of the door. The recommended maximum number of steps between landings is 18, with no more than two flights without a change of direction. The depth of any landing should be at least equal to the width of the stairs.

Stair surface - Canadian Rules

To reduce the risk of slipping on stairs, non-slippery surface on the whole steps or at least on the leading edges is crucial. Such a surface can be made of rubber, or metal or painted with special slip-resistant paint. Regular maintenance of the stairs in good repair plus good housekeeping can reduce hazards for tripping.

Stair handrails - Canadian Requirements

Attempts to design aesthetically pleasing stairways including handrails must not compromise functionality.

The prime function of the handrail is for holding as support while going up or down stairs.

It is therefore crucial to be able to grasp it quickly, easily and firmly if you should start losing your balance.

Visibility on stairs

Improving visibility on stairs significantly reduces the risk for common mishaps caused by misjudging distances. Otherwise you can trip on a step or miss it completely. You can catch a heel on the edge of a step. Such mishaps are a routine cause of twisted ankles, sprained knees or more serious injuries incurred by a total fall.

• Recommended illumination should be at the minimum 50 lux level. Use angular lighting and colour contrast to improve depth perception. Use matte finishes on the treads to avoid glare. Avoid patterned carpeting that may visually hide differences in depth.
• Be very cautious on stairs if you are wearing bifocal glasses.

Work activity on stairs

• Use any means to persuade people to grasp the handrail while both ascending or descending stairs. Avoid carrying objects with both hands.
• Do not carry bulky objects that block your vision.

Housekeeping Requirements for Stairways

Good housekeeping is also vital to stair safety:

• Nothing should be sticking out the surfaces of stairs, handrails or bannisters (like nails or splinters) that could cause a fall. Spills, wet spots, or any debris should be immediately cleaned up.
• Broken or malfunctioning lighting should be repaired or replaced.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about stair & railing codes, design, construction, & safety

Question: best solution to missing handrail on spiral staircase in tower?

We have a Grade 1 Listed Building 900 years old with a spiral staircase up the tower.

There is no handrail, and when we have previously consulted regarding provision of a rope, it seems that we have to insert special cast iron bolts in the mortar (not the stonework) and the rope has to be fixed on the inside surface where the tread of the stair is at its narrowest.

We think it is more dangerous on the central pillar than on the outer wall where the tread is widest. We have had one quote which has been accepted by the Diocese and our architect but the cost in 2008 was £2270+ Vat. This seems such a large amount to find, and we do not allow people to go up the tower unless the Captain of the Bells needs to go to the bell chamber, or one or two people need to check on the lead roof, or for maintainance.

We would like to ascertain whether there is any way round this problem which would give some kind of handhold that is allowable but not so expensive. - Church Warden

Reply: ropes make dangerous handrailings

My OPINION is that I agree emphatically with you that a railing on the inner side of a circular stair is more hazardous than the opposite in that it forces the stair user to walk on the inner and thus smaller portions of the stair treads - a more likely area for falls. On the other hand if someone IS walking in that area, for sure that's the more hazardous area and so they'd want access to a railing.

IN general, ropes do no make very safe handrails because of their obvious lack of rigidity - better than nothing but not as secure as a solid material.

For mounting the fasteners there are many systems for connecting to masonry; typically contractors drill into the mortar joints (much softer, avoids damaging the stone), and insert either an expanding bolt (cheap, quick), or a rapid-set expoxy-bolt combination.

Question: center post railing at double exit door?

Does a double exit door in a public building having a center post require a railing? - ewyeager@comcast.net

Reply: need more details: how to send photos and sketches to InspectAPedia.com

Sorry, we don't quite understand the question. Perhaps a photo or sketch (use ou CONTACT link). Railings are provided on landings and stairs. I'm not clear how your question about types of doors affects that condition. If you mean that there are steps down from the exit door then the standard handrailing requirements should apply.

Question: Is the final stair rise from top thread to threshold of building considered a riser?

We have a back door onto a slab 4" patio. The door's threshhold is ~20" above above grade. The slab is continous up to the house. Building a concrete stairway/flight to code will require 2 treads, to reach the threshhold.

Is the final rise from the top tread to the treshhold considered a riser, even though the stairway/flight has no such riser? To make the question more understandable, you build a stairway/flight and then position it against the house. If the elevation from the top tread to the threshhold considered a riser?

Also, is a footing required, even though the stairway/flight is on a 4" concrete slab? - dansbysa

Reply:

Dansbysa

As I read it, every vertical rise between stair treads is a "riser" - that is, every time a user has to lift a foot to the next level up, that's a riser. So what you call the "top tread" we call the next to last tread or step in that there is one more rise to climb to reach the finish floor height.

The requirement for a footing below stair stringers might be excused by your local code official if s/he accepts the stair bottom platform or 4" thick slab as adequate support against settlement of the stairway in the future.

Question: is an exception to step riser height uniformity allowed when using pre-fab stair stringters?

Is there an exception to the riser height variation for the very first step of the staircase? Let me attempt to clarify the question. I have a deck (exterior porch) for which the distance from the top of the deck to the slab which forms the footing for the set of stairs is just shy of the 5 steps within a pre-fabricated 5 step stair stringer which can be purchased at a Home Depot or Lowes, for example.

If I attach the pre-made stringer from the deck to the slab, ensuring that the top of the deck to the next stair down is the same height as the rest, then the riser height from the slab to the first stair is greater than a 3/8" variation from the rest of the riser heights by 1/8th of an inch (ie. it's 1/2 inch shorter than the rest of the stairs - I actually need to remove a half inch from the bottom most stair of the stringer to fit). If this is a violation of code, than it means I need to cut my own customer stringer. Just verifying. Any feedback is appreciated. - Dan

Reply: In short, no, but in this case you can adjust the stringer to meet code

Dan we answered this question previously in detail at Step riser dimensions - please take a look at that article. In short, because your step riser height variation at the first step is 1/2" shorter than the rest of the stairs, you can trim the top and bottom of the stair stringer to split that difference, making sure that the variation in step riser height is 1/4" or less - which meets code.

Question: stair weight capacity requirements: stair load design specifications

Is there a minimum weight capacity for wooden stairs? - Hendrick

Reply:

Hendrick: regarding stair load capacity, the best answer is to start by asking your local building department - the local code officials are the final authority on stair load capacity requirements.

Based on the 1997 Uniform Building Code (TM), the 2000 International Building Code (R), and the 2000 International Residential code (R) IRC, and looking at a popular stair construction bracket (the EZ-stair bracket), the allowable download on the bracket is 610-640 pounds (including snow loads on exterior stairs). Typical deck & post load numbers range from 650 to 1050 lbs/sqft.

Naturally all of the stair structural and other weight bearing components have to be constructed to handle the live and dead loads involved. And you can increase the load bearing capacity or weight carrying capacity of your stairs by increasing the size of the stair stringers.

Watch out: we have seen amateur-built stairs at which the stair stringers were cut so deeply to prepare notches for the treads and risers that the entire stairway was being supported by what amounted to a 2x3!!

Question: do I need to remodel stairs in a 1979 rental cabin to comply with current building codes

I purchased a cabin recently, the cabin was built in 1979, at that time the building code for stairs was different than the code today. I do rent the cabin. Do I need to remodeled the stair to be conform to the new building codes? - Mike Jones

Reply: requirement to update stairs to meet current building codes: no, sometimes yes, but ...

Mike, re: requirement to update stairs to meet current building codes:

While the final answer to your question is in the hands of your local building department, usually building owners are not required to change or update their building to keep up with building code updates.

But often a building owner can indeed find themselves obligated to update certain portions of the building or its mechanical systems to current building codes

• when the property is being sold (as part of a "CO" update that may be required by the buyer or their mortgage lender),
  or
• when an addition or modification to the building is being constructed, for which building permits and code approvals are required.

In my OPINION, because stair falls are the greatest source of injuries and hospitalizations in North America after automobile accidents, it is worth making stairs, railings, landings, and guardrails as safe as possible. You didn't mention anything specific about your cabin stairs, but certainly as a landlord, renting the property, you have an extra level of responsibility to your tenants to make the building safe, and you certainly don't want someone to be injured. I'd be sure to pay attention to basic trip and fall hazards such as uneven risers or treads, and inadequate railings.

Questions & Answers regarding this article

Questions & answers about the design requirements and code specifications for building stairs, landings, railings, and guard railings.

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STAIRS, RAILINGS, LANDINGS, RAMPS
  Attic stairs
  Balusters & Railing Enclosures
  BARK SIDE DOWN on DECKS, TRIM, STEPS
  Basement Stairs & Walkout Covers
  Books on Stair Construction
  Checklist for Stair Inspections
  Circular & Curved Stairs
  Codes for Stairs
  Deck & Porch Steps or Stairs
  Deck & Porch Railings
  Deck & Porch Products, Manufacturers
  Fasteners, Nails, Screws, Hidden, for Decks
  Fasteners, Structural for Decks
  Finishes, Coatings, Stains for Decks
  Porch Construction & Porch Screening
  Preservative-Treated Framing Lumber
  Rooftop Deck Construction
  Rot-Resistant Deck Lumber & Flooring
  Synthetic Deck Lumber: Composite, Plastic, Vinyl
  Exterior stairs
  Fire Stopping for Stairways
  Guardrails on Balconies & Landings
  Lighting over Stairs
  Railings on Stairways
  Ramps, access
  Stair dimensions: width height &c
  Stairway headroom
  Stairway landings
  Step riser dimensions
  Step stringer defects
  Step tread dimensions
  Stair tread nose dimensions
  Winder stairs

• Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd., 120 Carlton Street Suite 407, Toronto ON M5A 4K2. (416) 964-9415 1-800-268-7070 info@carsondunlop.com. Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, for permission to use illustrations from their publication, The Illustrated Home which illustrates construction details and building components. Carson Dunlop provides home inspection education including the ASHI-adopted Home Inspection Training Program (home study course), publications such as the Home Reference Book, report writing materials including the Horizon report writer, and home inspection services. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors.
• Arlene Puentes, 845-339-7984, is an ASHI member and a licensed home inspector in Kingston, NY, and has served on ASHI national committees as well as HVASHI Chapter President. Ms. Puentes can be contacted at ap@octoberhome.com.
• Richard Kralstein (email, 05/28/2010) kindly contributed comments about guardrails on outdoor retaining walls for Glen Cove, NY.
• Thanks to reader Tahjay Pinnock for discussing the need for safe non-slip stair tread surfaces - May 2010
• BOCA Code - is the most widely-used model building code in the U.S.
• Life Safety Code Handbook -
• National Building Code of Canada - Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety - on Fall Prevention - see http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/stairs_fallprevention.html
• The Uniform Building Code is used exclusively in the Western parts of the U.S.
• New York State Building Code, Mark Blanke,P.E. Assistant Director of Technical Services, New York State Department of State Code Enforcement and Administration, 99 Washington Ave., Suite 1160, Albany, NY 12231, Tel: 518-474-4073, FAX: 518-474-5788 - http://www.dos.state.ny.us/code/Title19.htm
• New York State Building Code - 2007, online, see http://publicecodes.citation.com/st/ny/st/index.htm
• New York State Building Code - 2007, provisions governing stairs, railings, landings, etc. - http://publicecodes.citation.com/st/ny/st/b200v07/st_ny_st_b200v07_10_sec009.htm
• Residential exit doors, stairways, landings, handrails and guards, Technical Bulletin, 1 January 2003 (10 July 2003), Source Department: 19NYCRR 1220 - Residential Code of New York State (RCNYS), web search 03/03/2011, original source: http://www.dos.state.ny.us/code/pdf/RCstairsTB.pdf
• [6] OSHA Publication 3124 - Stairways and Ladder, web search 12/21/11, OSHA Publications Office U.S. Department of Labor 200 Constitution Avenue, NW, N-3101 Washington, DC 20210 Telephone (202) 693-1888 or fax to (202) 693-2498. Original source: osha.gov/Publications/ladders/osha3124.html
• Stairways and Ladders, A Guide to OSHA Rules, OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, 3124-12R 2003 - Web Search 05/28/2010 original source: http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3124.pdf. OSHA regulations govern standards in the construction industry and in the workforce Quoting from OSHA whose focus is on workplace safety and so excludes discussion of falls and stair-falls in private homes:

OSHA estimates that there are 24,882 injuries and as many as 36 fatalities per year due to falls from stairways and ladders used in construction. Nearly half of these injuries are serious enough to require time off the job--11,570 lost workday injuries and 13,312 non-lost workday injuries occur annually due to falls from stairways and ladders used in construction. These data demonstrate that work on and around ladders and stairways is hazardous. More importantly, they show that compliance with OSHA's requirements for the safe use of ladders and stairways could have prevented many of these injuries. -osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/stairlad.html

• "Building Code Policy" Lapeyre Stair Inc., P.O. Box 50699 New Orleans, LA 70150, Tel: 800.535.7631, web search 12/21/11 original source: lapeyrestair.com/info/codeAll.aspx

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

• Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.

• "The Elimination of Unsafe Guardrails, a Progress Report," Elliott O. Stephenson, Building Standards, March-April 1993
• "Are Functional Handrails Within Our Grasp" Jake Pauls, Building Standards, January-February 1991
• Access Ramp building codes:
  • UBC 1003.3.4.3
  • BOCA 1016.3
  • ADA 4.8.2
  • IBC 1010.2
• Access Ramp Standards:
  • ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), Public Law 101-336. 7/26/90 is very often cited by other sources for good design of stairs and ramps etc. even where disabled individuals are not the design target.
  • ANSI A117.4 Accessible and Usable buildings and Facilities (earlier version was incorporated into the ADA)
  • ASTM F 1637, Standard Practice for Safe Walking Surfaces, (Similar to the above standards)
• America's Favorite Homes, mail-order catalogues as a guide to popular early 20th-century houses, Robert Schweitzer, Michael W.R. Davis, 1990, Wayne State University Press ISBN 0814320066 (may be available from Wayne State University Press)
• American Plywood Association, APA, "Portland Manufacturing Company, No. 1, a series of monographs on the history of plywood manufacturing",Plywood Pioneers Association, 31 March, 1967, www.apawood.org
• Animal Allergens: Dog, Cat, and Other Animal Dander - Cleanup & Prevention Information for Asthmatics and regarding Indoor Air Quality.
• Asbestos: How to find and recognize asbestos in buildings - visual inspection methods, list of common asbestos-containing materials
• Asbestos HVAC Ducts and Flues field identification photos and guide
• Asbestos products and their history and use in various building materials such as asphalt and vinyl flooring includes discussion which draws on Asbestos, Its Industrial Applications, D.V. Rosato, engineering consultant, Newton, MA, Reinhold Publishing, 1959 Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 59-12535 (out of print).
• Asbestos Identification and Testing References
• Asbestos Identification, Walter C.McCrone, McCrone Research Institute, Chicago, IL.1987 ISBN 0-904962-11-3. Dr. McCrone literally "wrote the book" on asbestos identification procedures which formed the basis for current work by asbestos identification laboratories.
• Stanton, .F., et al., National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 506: 143-151
• Pott, F., Staub-Reinhalf Luft 38, 486-490 (1978) cited by McCrone
• ASHRAE resource on dew point and wall condensation - see the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, available in many libraries. The following three ASHRAE Handbooks are also available at the InspectAPedia bookstore in the third page of our Insulate-Ventilate section:
  • 2005 ASHRAE Handbook : Fundamentals : Inch-Pound Edition (2005 ASHRAE HANDBOOK : Fundamentals : I-P Edition) (Hardcover), Thomas H. Kuehn (Contributor), R. J. Couvillion (Contributor), John W. Coleman (Contributor), Narasipur Suryanarayana (Contributor), Zahid Ayub (Contributor), Robert Parsons (Author), ISBN-10: 1931862702 or ISBN-13: 978-1931862707
  • 2004 ASHRAE Handbook : Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning: Systems and Equipment : Inch-Pound Edition (2004 ASHRAE Handbook : HVAC Systems and Equipment : I-P Edition) (Hardcover)
    by American Society of Heating, ISBN-10: 1931862478 or ISBN-13: 978-1931862479
    "2004 ASHRAE Handbook - HVAC Systems and Equipment The 2004 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment discusses various common systems and the equipment (components or assemblies) that comprise them, and describes features and differences. This information helps system designers and operators in selecting and using equipment. Major sections include Air-Conditioning and Heating Systems (chapters on system analysis and selection, air distribution, in-room terminal systems, centralized and decentralized systems, heat pumps, panel heating and cooling, cogeneration and engine-driven systems, heat recovery, steam and hydronic systems, district systems, small forced-air systems, infrared radiant heating, and water heating); Air-Handling Equipment (chapters on duct construction, air distribution, fans, coils, evaporative air-coolers, humidifiers, mechanical and desiccant dehumidification, air cleaners, industrial gas cleaning and air pollution control); Heating Equipment (chapters on automatic fuel-burning equipment, boilers, furnaces, in-space heaters, chimneys and flue vent systems, unit heaters, makeup air units, radiators, and solar equipment); General Components (chapters on compressors, condensers, cooling towers, liquid coolers, liquid-chilling systems, centrifugal pumps, motors and drives, pipes and fittings, valves, heat exchangers, and energy recovery equipment); and Unitary Equipment (chapters on air conditioners and heat pumps, room air conditioners and packaged terminal equipment, and a new chapter on mechanical dehumidifiers and heat pipes)."
  • 1996 Ashrae Handbook Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems and Equipment: Inch-Pound Edition (Hardcover), ISBN-10: 1883413346 or ISBN-13: 978-1883413347 ,
    "The 1996 HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook is the result of ASHRAE's continuing effort to update, expand and reorganize the Handbook Series. Over a third of the book has been revised and augmented with new chapters on hydronic heating and cooling systems design; fans; unit ventilator; unit heaters; and makeup air units. Extensive changes have been added to chapters on panel heating and cooling; cogeneration systems and engine and turbine drives; applied heat pump and heat recovery systems; humidifiers; desiccant dehumidification and pressure drying equipment, air-heating coils; chimney, gas vent, fireplace systems; cooling towers; centrifugal pumps; and air-to-air energy recovery. Separate I-P and SI editions."
  • Principles of Heating, Ventilating, And Air Conditioning: A textbook with Design Data Based on 2005 AShrae Handbook - Fundamentals (Hardcover), Harry J., Jr. Sauer (Author), Ronald H. Howell, ISBN-10: 1931862923 or ISBN-13: 978-1931862929
  • 1993 ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals (Hardcover), ISBN-10: 0910110964 or ISBN-13: 978-091011096
• Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction, by Steven Bliss. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ISBN-10: 0471648361, ISBN-13: 978-0471648369, Hardcover: 320 pages, available from Amazon.com and also Wiley.com. See our book review of this publication.
• Decks and Porches, the JLC Guide to, Best Practices for Outdoor Spaces, Steve Bliss (Editor), The Journal of Light Construction, Williston VT, 2010 ISBN 10: 1-928580-42-4, ISBN 13: 978-1-928580-42-3, available from Amazon.com
• Brick nogging used as soundproofing is mentioned in this article on Popular Forest
• Brick Nogging, Historical Investigation and Contemporary Repair, Construction Specifier, April 2006. Historical use of brick in timber-framed buildings, drawing on the investigations of the Kent Tavern in Calais, VT. "Brick nogging is a European method of construction which was brought to the new world in the early-nineteenth century. It was a common construction method that employed masonry as infill between the vertical uprights of wood framing." -- quoting the web article review.
• Photo of very rough in-wall brick nogging at an architects website
• Building Research Council, BRC, nee Small Homes Council, SHC, School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, brc.arch.uiuc.edu. "The Small Homes Council (our original name) was organized in 1944 during the war at the request of the President of the University of Illinois to consider the role of the university in meeting the demand for housing in the United States. Soldiers would be coming home after the war and would be needing good low-cost housing. ...  In 1993, the Council became part of the School of Architecture, and since then has been known as the School of Architecture-Building Research Council. ... The Council's researchers answered many critical questions that would affect the quality of the nation's housing stock.
  • How could homes be designed and built more efficiently?
  • What kinds of construction and production techniques worked well and which did not?
  • How did people use different kinds of spaces in their homes?
  • What roles did community planning, zoning, and interior design play in how neighborhoods worked
• The Circular Staircase, Mary Roberts Rinehart
• Construction Drawings and Details, Rosemary Kilmer
• "An Example of Colonial Paneling", Norman Morrison Isham, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 5 (May, 1911), pp. 112-116, available by JSTOR.
• Dust from the World Trade Center collapse following the 9/11/01 attack: the lower floors of this building contained spray-on fire-proofing asbestos materials.
• Energy Savers: Whole House Systems Approach to Energy Efficient Home Design [copy on file as /interiors/Whole_House_Energy_Efficiency_DOE.pdf ] - U.S. Department of Energy
• "Energy Savers: Whole-House Supply Ventilation Systems [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Whole-House_Supply_Vent.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11880?print
• "Energy Savers: Whole-House Exhaust Ventilation Systems [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Whole-House_Exhaust.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11870
• "Energy Savers: Ventilation [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Ventilation.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
• "Energy Savers: Natural Ventilation [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Natural_Ventilation.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
• "Energy Savers: Energy Recovery Ventilation Systems [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Energy_Recovery_Venting.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11900
• "Energy Savers: Detecting Air Leaks [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Detect_Air_Leaks.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
• "Energy Savers: Air Sealing [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Air_Sealing_1.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
• Falls and Related Injuries: Slips, Trips, Missteps, and Their Consequences, Lawyers & Judges Publishing, (June 2002), ISBN-10: 0913875430 ISBN-13: 978-0913875438
  "Falls in the home and public places are the second leading cause of unintentional injury deaths in the United States, but are overlooked in most literature. This book is unique in that it is entirely devoted to falls. Of use to primary care physicians, nurses, insurance adjusters, architects, writers of building codes, attorneys, or anyone who cares for the elderly, this book will tell you how, why, and when people will likely fall, what most likely will be injured, and how such injuries come about. "
• Fiberglass: Indoor Air Quality Investigations: Health Concerns About Airborne Fiberglass: Fiberglass in Indoor Air from HVAC ducts, and Building Insulation
• Humidity: What indoor humidity should we maintain in order to avoid a mold problem?
• Ice Dam Leaks in building attics and roof cavities, how to inspect for evidence of leaks, identify causes, and correct bad attic ventilation, improper roof venting, and these causes of attic mold or roof structure damage
• "Insulation: Adding Insulation to an Existing Home," U.S. Department of Energy - tips on how to do your own check for the presence of absence of insulation in a home
• Insulation: Selecting Insulation for New Home Construction, U.S. Department of Energy - "Your state and local building codes probably include minimum insulation requirements, but to build an energy-efficient home, you may need or want to exceed them. For maximum energy efficiency, you should also consider the interaction between the insulation and other building components. This is called the whole-house systems design approach."
• Insulation Types, table of common building insulation properties from U.S. DOE. Readers should see INSULATION R-Values & Properties our own table of insulation properties that includes links to articles describing each insulation material in more detail.
• Lighting, proper use of: proper aiming of a good flashlight can disclose hard to see but toxic light or white mold colonies on walls.
• Mobile Home Inspections common defects unique to factory built housing, inspection methods
• The National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST (nee National Bureau of Standards NBS) is a US government agency - see www.nist.gov
  • "A Parametric Study of Wall Moisture Contents Using a Revised Variable Indoor Relative Humidity Version of the "Moist" Transient Heat and Moisture Transfer Model [copy on file as/interiors/MOIST_Model_NIST_b95074.pdf ] - ", George Tsongas, Doug Burch, Carolyn Roos, Malcom Cunningham; this paper describes software and the prediction of wall moisture contents. - PDF Document from NIS
• Nogging: See this photo of exposed bricks on a building exterior on a building exterior in Canada. [Thanks to Carson Dunlop, Toronto - see References below].
• Pergo AB, division of Perstorp AB, is a Swedish manufacturer or modern laminate flooring products. Information about the U.S. company can be found at http://www.pergo.com where we obtained historical data used in our discussion of the age of flooring materials in buildings.
• Piquet Wall Construction: See this photo of piquet wall construction - involving timber-framed wall construction with long top girts, diagonal timber bracing, and small diameter logs placed vertically along with concrete chinking to fill in the wall plane.
• Plank House Construction: weblog from plankhouse.wordpress.com/2009/01/25/plank-house-construction/ and where plank houses were built by native Americans, see
  Large 1:6 Scale Plank House Construction / P8094228, Photographer: Mike Meuser
  06/12/2007 documented at yurokplankhouse.com where scale model Museum quality Yurok Plank Houses are being sold to raise money for the Blue Creek - Ah Pah Traditional Yurok Village project.
• Re-Bath, tub lining products is a bath tub relining manufacturer and distributor located in Tempe, Arizona - see rebath.com
• Rubblestone Wall Filler: See this Lartigue House using exterior-exposed rubblestone filler between vertical timbers of a post and beam-framed Canadian building.
• Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, Second Edition, Gary M. Bakken, H. Harvey Cohen,A. S. Hyde, Jon R. Abele, ISBN-13: 978-1-933264-01-1 or ISBN 10: 1-933264-01-2, available from the publisher, Lawyers ^ Judges Publishing Company,Inc., www.lawyersandjudges.com sales@lawyersandjudges.com and also from the InspectAPedia Bookstore (Amazon.com)
• The Stairway Manufacturers' Association, (877) 500-5759, provides a pictorial guide to the stair and railing portion of the International Residential Code. [copy on file as http://www.stairways.org/pdf/2006%20Stair%20IRC%20SCREEN.pdf ] -
• What Mold and Allergens Look Like: mold identification photos to help identify mold - choosing what to sample in buildings
• How to Clean Moldy Wood Framing & Sheathing How to clean/seal mold from/on exposed lumber or plywood subfloor or roof sheathing indoors - some suggestions based on our field and laboratory research
• Lighting, proper use of: proper aiming of a good flashlight can disclose hard to see but toxic light or white mold colonies on walls.
• Manufactured & Modular Homes: Modular Building Systems Association, MBSA, modularhousing.com, is a trade association promoting and providing links to contact modular builders in North America. Also see the Manufactured Home Owners Association, MHOAA, at www.mhoaa.us. The Manufactured Home Owners Association of America is a National Organization dedicated to the protection of the rights of all people living in Manufactured Housing in the United States.
• Mold spores in the Home - a Photo ID Library for detection and identification of mold allergens.
• How to Find and Test For Mold in buildings A "how to" photo and text primer on finding and choosing the right spots to test for mold in buildings
• Stuff that is not mold but is often mistaken for it - things you may not want to test. Also, not all "black mold" is toxic - here are examples of harmless black mold.
• Simple Adhesive Tape Sampling of Moldy Surfaces - how to send a mold sample to our lab
• Mold Sampling Methods in the Indoor Environment - In-depth article: detailed critique of popular mold testing methods - Is your mold test kit worth the bother?
• Mold-Resistant Building Practices, advice from an expert on how to prevent mold after a building flood and how to prevent mold growth in buildings by selection of building materials and by anti-mold construction details.
• Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, Gary M. Bakken, H. Harvey Cohen, Jon R. Abele, Alvin S. Hyde, Cindy A. LaRue, Lawyers and Judges Publishing; ISBN-10: 1933264012 ISBN-13: 978-1933264011
• Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, Second Edition, Gary M. Bakken, H. Harvey Cohen,A. S. Hyde, Jon R. Abele, ISBN-13: 978-1-933264-01-1 or ISBN 10: 1-933264-01-2, available from the publisher, Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company,Inc., www.lawyersandjudges.com sales@lawyersandjudges.com and also from the InspectAPedia Bookstore (Amazon.com)
• Steps and Stairways, Cleo Baldon & Ib Melchior, Rizzoli, 1989.
• The Staircase, Ann Rinaldi
  
• Common Sense Stairbuilding and Handrailing, Fred T. Hodgson
• The Art of Staircases, Pilar Chueca
• Building Stairs, by pros for pros, Andy Engel
• A Simplified Guide to Custom Stairbuilding, George R. Christina
• Basic Stairbuilding, Scott Schuttner
  
• The Staircase (two volumes), John Templar, Cambridge: the MIT Press, 1992
• The Staircase: History and Theories, John Templar, MIT Press 1995
• Steps and Stairways, Cleo Baldon & Ib Melchior, Rizzoli, 1989.
• Steps and Stairways, Cleo Baldon & Ib Melchior, Rizzoli, 1989.
• "The Dimensions of Stairs", J. M. Fitch et al., Scientific American, October 1974.
• "The Elimination of Unsafe Guardrails, a Progress Report," Elliott O. Stephenson, Building Standards, March-April 1993
• "Are Functional Handrails Within Our Grasp" Jake Pauls, Building Standards, January-February 1991
• "Weather-Resistive Barriers [copy on file as /interiors/Weather_Resistant_Barriers_DOE.pdf ] - ", how to select and install housewrap and other types of weather resistive barriers, U.S. DOE
• Weaver: Beaver Board and Upson Board: Beaver Board and Upson Board: History and Conservation of Early Wallboard, Shelby Weaver, APT Bulletin, Vol. 28, No. 2/3 (1997), pp. 71-78, Association for Preservation Technology International (APT), available online at JSTOR.
• What Style Is It?: A Guide to American Architecture, Rev., John C. Poppeliers, S. Allen Chambers, Wiley; Rev Sub edition (October 6, 2003), ISBN-10: 0471250368, ISBN-13: 978-0471250364
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