Guide to Scalding Hot Water Temperatures, Laws, Regulations, Anti-Scald Equipment

Table of Hot Water Scalding Temperatures & Times; Hot Water Anti-Scald Limits: Laws & Regulations; How to buy, install, adjust, & inspect anti-scald valves or tempering valves; What to do if you see steam coming out of your hot water faucet Danger
ANTI SCALD VALVES / MIXING VALVES - separate article
ANTI SCALD VALVE PROTECTION, Best Practices - separate article
TABLE OF SCALDING TEMPERATURES & TIMES

HOT WATER ANTI-SCALD REGULATIONS

Questions & answers about scalding, hot water burns, steaming water faucets
References

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InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.

Guide to hot water temperature settings & devices to avoid scalding: here we provide tables of scalding temperature and times, hot water scalding regulations and guidelines, and advice about use of anti-scalding devices to avoid dangerous, potentially fatal hot water burns. This website answers most questions about Heating System Boiler Controls on central heating systems to aid in troubleshooting, inspection, diagnosis, and repairs. Contact us to suggest text changes and additions and, if you wish, to receive online listing and credit for that contribution. See MIXING / ANTI-SCALD VALVES for our complete article series on anti-scald equipment, devices, both automatic and manual tempering or mixing valves, and their settings necessary to avoid hot water burns.

Table of Scalding Temperatures & Exposure Times that Cause Hot Water Burns

What are safe temperatures for residential hot water?

**Table of Hot Water Scalding Temperatures & Times**
Water Temperature Setting	Exposure Time	Effects of Exposure to Hot water at These Temperatures
Water at 100 degF or below	See safety note.	Most water heaters are unlikely to scald an adult occupant;
Water at 120 degF	5 minutes	2nd & 3rd degree burns on adult skin
Water at 130 degF	30 seconds	2nd & 3rd degree burns on adult skin
Water at 140 degF	5 seconds	2nd & 3rd degree burns on adult skin
Water at 150 degF	1 1/2 seconds	2nd & 3rd degree burns on adult skin
Water at 160 degF	1/2 second	2nd & 3rd degree burns on adult skin
Safety Note: Hot Water Scald Burn Warning for Infants, Children, Elderly: great care must be taken when exposing infants or children to warm or hot water as they can be badly burned quickly and at shorter exposure times.
Source: A.O. Smith

This photo of the warning labels on an A.O. Smith gas fired power-vented domestic hot water heater includes text warning consumers about serious burn hazards and even death from exposure to water that is too hot.

(Click on the photo to enlarge and read the text more easily).

If your hot water temperatures are too low, see Temperature of Hot Water is Too Low

If you do not have enough hot water pressure or hot water quantity, see HOT WATER IMPROVEMENTS

Hot Water Anti-Scald Limits: Laws & Regulations

Anti-Scald Hot Water Regulations & Temperatures
Maximum Temperature	Authority
96-102 degF	Typical comfortable temperature for washing and bathing [15]
105 degF	UFAS (Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard), 105°F max by automatically controlled tempered water flow, 1988 edition, and ADA (American with Disabilities Act).
110 degF	U.S. Dept. Health & Human Services, Guidelines for Construction & Equipment of Hospital & Medical Facilities, HRP - 0905974, JUL84, avail. from NTIS, p48: “Hot water for showers and bathing facilities shall be at an appropriate temperature for comfortable use but shall not exceed 49°C (120°F) (see Table 4).” Table 4 gives temp in °F as 100 clinical (include shower), 120 dietary, 160 laundry.
100-120 degF	ACA (American Correctional Association), 100 to 120°F max automatically controlled for prison showers, “Adult Correctional Institutions, 3rd Ed, 1990.”
120 degF	1993 International Plumbing Code 97/00 - adopted by 18 U.S. states
120 degF	1994 Uniform Plumbing Code (IAPMO/ICBO) 97/00 - 13 U.S. states
120 degF	1996 International Plumbing Code SBCCI 97/00 - 10 U.S. states
120 degF	1996 National Standard Plumbing Code PHCC 96/98 - 5 U.S. states
	No state code committed in 1998 - 3 U.S. states
Reference	A40 1993 Safety Standard for Plumbing (ANSI/MCA/PHCC/IAPMO) 93/
Notes: Federal Regulations on Hot Water Scald Protection According to Domestic Hot Water Scald Burn Lawsuits... D. Bynum et als., there are three different federal standards for limits on safe hot water temperatures 1. 110 degF Max: U.S. Dept. Health & Human Services, Guidelines for Construction & Equipment of Hospital & Medical Facilities, HRP - 0905974, JUL84, avail. from NTIS, p48: “Hot water for showers and bathing facilities shall be at an appropriate temperature for comfortable use but shall not exceed 49°C (120°F) (see Table 4).” Table 4 gives temp in °F as 100 clinical (include shower), 120 dietary, 160 laundry. 2. 105°F Max UFAS (Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard), 105°F max by automatically controlled tempered water flow, 1988 edition, and ADA (American with Disabilities Act). 3. 100–120°F ACA (American Correctional Association), 100 to 120°F max automatically controlled for prison showers, "Adult Correctional Institutrions, 3rd Ed. 1990" Additional anti-scald protection regulation details: See Table of States Adopting Anti-Scald Regulations for state by state details

Continue reading about anti-scald protection at How Anti Scald Valves Work.

Best Practices Guide to Scald Protection

The U.S. CDC offers this simple safety advice to avoid scalding burns at plumbing fixtures:

Adjust thermostat on water heater to keep hot water <120°F. Install antiscald tempering valves or thermostatic mixing valves.
Before using, check water temperature with a kitchen thermometer or test with your elbow, wrist, or hand with spread fingers.
Start to fill bathtub with cold water and slowly mix with hot water. Avoid running water in other rooms during this time (it might increase the temperature of the water filling the bathtub) and turn off the hot water first [16]

Our home page for anti scald devices used in plumbing systems is MIXING / ANTI-SCALD VALVES. The article below, MIX VALVE SCALD PROTECTION, Best Practices, includes excerpts or adaptations from Chapter 6 of Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction, courtesy of Wiley & Sons and written by Steven Bliss.

Watch out: it can be confusing listening to plumbers, home inspectors, and building supply sales staff who toss around terms like "mixing valve", "tempering valve", and "pressure-balancing valve" a bit loosely, all referring to ways to avoid scalding burns at plumbing fixtures, but not all working the same way.

There are several approaches to controlling hot water temperature to avoid scalding burns:

The high temperature limit control on the water heating device itself can be set to prevent scalding water from being produced. Below at Table of Scalding Temperatures & Times we include a photo of a typical water heater label warning about scalding temperatures, implying that this option is one to consider.
A point of supply pressure balancing valve or automatic mixing valve (or a manual mixing valve) can be installed at or near the water heater, or at the tankless coil or other hot water source so that scald protection is provided even if the water heater is set to a high temperature. This approach is sometimes used to obtain more total hot water as we discuss at Mix Valve Improves Hot Water Quantity and detail at HOT WATER IMPROVEMENT.

This approach is discussed beginning at How Anti Scald Valves Work, and further reviewed by Steven Bliss at Water Pressure-Balancing Valves.
An temperature-sensing thermostatic mixing valve or anti-scald device can be installed at or near the water heating device so that even if the water heater is set to a high temperature (to obtain more total hot water as we discuss at Mix Valve Improves Hot Water Quantity and detail at HOT WATER IMPROVEMENT).

This approach is illustrated and explained at Built-in Fixture Anti-Scald Valves and is discussed further by Mr. Bliss at Thermostatic Mixing Valves.

As noted in Chapter 6 of Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction:

There are many styles of mixer valves in tubs and showers, but all should have some sort of protection against scalding. The young and elderly are at greatest risk due to thinner skin and slower reaction times. More than 35,000 children, most under age six, are treated each year in emergency rooms for tap-water scald burns, according to the National Safe Kids Campaign.

A child exposed to 140°F water for as little as three seconds (see Table of Scalding Temperatures & Times) can sustain a third-degree burn requiring hospitalization and skin grafts. Although most scald burns occur in the kitchen, according to the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the most severe scald burns are caused by water flowing into the tub or shower. In response, many state and local codes now require antiscald protection in residential tubs and showers.

Many organizations advocate setting water heaters to no more than 120°F, which gives bathers significantly more time to move away or adjust the temperature before a burn occurs. While this strategy is helpful, it is not always reliable and can cause other problems:

Noncompliance: many homeowners turn the thermostats up to increase supply.
Water heater thermostats are often inaccurate. The ANSI standard for gas water heaters allows the temperature to vary by plus-or-minus 10°F.
Stacking effect: water at the top of a gas water heater can exceed the set point by as much as 30°F.

Use of Point of Supply Water Pressure-Balancing Valves to Control Temperature & Avoid Scalding

This is the most commonly used point-of-supply approach. These automatically adjust the water pressure to maintain the mix of hot and cold water to within 2°F to 3°F of where the user set the shower control.

If cold water is diverted to a flushing toilet or other appliance and the pressure drops, the valve automatically reduces the hot water flow proportionately to maintain the temperature.

If the cold water pressure plummets or stops altogether, the flow is reduced to a trickle.

To guard against someone accidentally turning the shower valve to scalding temperatures, these valves typically use a temperature limit stop that prevents the user from turning the shower control past a set point—typically set at or below 120°F.

Use of Point of Supply or Point of Use Thermostatic Mixing Valves to Avoid Scalding Burns

Some models of thermostatic mixing valves are more expensive than pressure-balancing valves and not widely used in the United States. They can be installed either inline near the water heater or as part of the shower control. The inline type of valve, also called a tempering valve, adds cold water to the hot water as it leaves the water heater to maintain a constant temperature, set by the installer. These are commonly used with solar water heaters but can also be tied to a conventional water heater.

A check valve is required on the cold water side to prevent backflow, and a hot-water expansion tank is recommended to prevent excessive pressure on the hot water side.

Figure 6-1: Accessible Kitchen Design Specs: accessible sink and dishwasher work centers (C) J Wiley S Bliss

The other type of thermostatic valve is built into some high-end showers (Figure 6-54). These allow the user to set the temperature on a dial when showering.

The unit will compensate for changes in either pressure or temperature to maintain a constant delivery temperature and flow rate.

If the cold water fails or the tempered water is still too hot for any reason, the unit will shut off the flow.

As with the pressure-balancing valve, the installer sets a temperature limit stop to prevent the user from turning the shower control to scalding temperatures.

We illustrate this approach as it is installed in a modern bathroom in Molde, Norway at Built-in Fixture Anti-Scald Valves.

[Click any image or table to see an enlarged version with additional detail, commentary & source citation.]

Plumbing Fixture Retrofits Used to Avoid Scalding Burns

In retrofits, point-of-use devices can be installed by a plumber or homeowner to limit water temperatures to 120°F. These include antiscald showerheads, as well as point-of-use devices that fit into individual plumbing fixtures, such as showerheads and bath and sink faucets.

For example, MemrySafe and ScaldShield (Antiscald Inc.) are inexpensive retrofit devices that reduce the water flow to less than 1/4 gallon per minute when the water temperature at the faucet or showerhead exceeds 120°F. These devices do not regulate temperature or pressure, but do offer protection against serious burns.

Table of States or Provinces Adopting Specific Anti-Scald Regulations: State, Code, Date

Table of States or Provinces Adopting Anti-Scald Plumbing Codes
States or Provinces	Plumbing Code	Date or Edition
18 States including Delaware Illinois Indiana Kansas Maine Massachussetts Michigan Missouri New Hampshire New York Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania Utah Vermont Virginia West Virginia	International Plumbing Code 1993, Max 120 degF.	1997 & 2000
13 States Alaska Arizona California Colorado Hawaii Idaho Iowa Montana Nevada New Mexico Oregon Washington Wyoming	Uniform Plumbing Code (IAPMO / ICBO) 1994, Max 120 degF. California: anti-scald devices are required by the CA 2007 Plumbing Code, Chapter 4, section 418.0 Shower and Tub Combination Control Valves	1997 / 2000
10 States Alabama Arkansas Florida Georgia Louisiana Norgh Carolina Mississippi South Carolina Tennessee Texas	SBCCI or International Plumbing Code (1996), Max 120 degF.	1997 / 2000
5 States Connecticut Maryland New Jersey North Dakota South Dakota	National Standard Plumbing Code (PHCC) (1996), Max 120 degF.	1996/1998
3 States Kentucky Minnesota Wisconsin	State Code Not Yet Committed
Nebraska	A40 1993 Safety Standard for Plumbing (ANSI/MCA/PHCC/IAPMO)	1993


Ontario, Canada	Effective Sept. 1, 2004, all water heaters replaced or installed are required to have an “anti-scald” device installed. A change was made to the Ontario Building Code making anti-scald devices mandatory.[14]	2004

Notes: Source: Domestic Hot Water Scald Burn Lawsuits... D. Bynum et als.,

...

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about hot water set temperatures, scalding hot water burn hazards, and steaming hot water faucets

Some of the FAQs discussed below are adapted from information provided by the Watts Regulator Company in a 1973 publication.[10]

Question: when I turn on our hot water faucet steam comes out - what should I do?

I was told to open the hot water faucet to allow "excess steam" to escape from our hot water heater tank. Somehow this just doesn't sound right to me. - Living dangerously, Chicago 6/30/12

Reply: there is an immediate risk of water heater explosion

If a water heater is overheating (and thus is unsafe) the water in the tank can flash to steam when it reaches the opening of an open water faucet.

Watch out: Steam coming out of your hot water faucets indicates a very dangerous situation: your water heater tank is dangerously and seriously overheating. There are just two alternatives, and the homeowner has to choose among them by her perception of danger (history of the steam problem for example) and her mechanical expertise:

The safest step is to immediately evacuate the building - a steaming water heater is in danger of exploding.

If you feel safe and competent to do so, you or a qualified person can immediately shut off the water heater's energy source from inside or preferably outside the building. [10]

After the water heater has been shut down and the building found safe, call a plumber, not the one who fouled up your water heater in the first place, and ask her to have a proper temperature/pressure relief valve installed on the water heater and to check it for safe and proper settings and operation.

Should you open or leave open a hot water faucet if steam comes out? Will that prevent a water heater explosion?

Opening a hot water faucet might buy a little time by sending cold water into the water heater storage tank, but don't count on the flow rate through the piping system to be anywhere near adequate to safely release the amount of heat that would be necessary to make the system safe. Worse, you could cause the water tank to explode.

Watch out: as Watts explains, although incoming cold water might help cool down the water in an overheated water tank, the cool water suddenly impacting the bottom of an overheated water tank can cause a metal stress and a pressure-heat rupture - leading to a water tank explosion. [10]

Question: is it legal to have showers with no hot water temperature adjustment?

I want to know if it is legal to have showers with no way to adjust the temperature of the water. I hope you are unbiased. [At our facilities] our showers only have hot water coming out. I have RSD and my legs are extremely sensitive to hot and cold, and I can't even stand the mist if I stand back from the shower spray. Is there any law that says you have to be able to lower temps of hot water? I would think by now that there could be built in temp adjustments so there would be no handles to break. Thank you for any help you can provide.

Reply:

Thank you for the question, it helps us realize where we need to work on making our text more clear or more complete. We must emphasize that an onsite inspection by a competent investigator will certainly find conditions and clues that may not yet have been observed nor reported, so any advice by remote email is of necessity incomplete and a bit theoretical. For example, if the water coming out of showers is hotter than recommended by various safety standards that would be improper. I'm not sure I can say what's legal since rules that pertain to various types of public shower facilities management may be different, but it seems reasonable to me that you could expect basic safety and health standards to apply. That apology made, here are some comments:

There are several types of automatic mixing valves that are designed to be installed on hot water supplies or right at bath fixtures (like a shower) that can be set to a particular temperature - as a safety device to avoid scalding. See the article above for a table of temperatures that suggest what hot water temperature is considered "too hot" or at risk of scalding someone.

In my OPINION, where manual adjustments to shower temperature are not provided, an automatic anti-scalding device should be in place and should be set to a safe temperature. The highest temperature permissible that will reliably avoid scalding is 100 degF.

So start by making some actual temperature measurements, documenting the temp range and the temp variation (if it does) at different times of the day.

Regarding your question of "is it legal" to have no shower temperature control, see the various codes and laws summarized in our table above - Hot Water Anti-Scald Limits: Laws & Regulations

There are plumbing and safety standards that may apply to shower hot water temperature regulation, such as

ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) that might require provision of lower temperature for people with special needs. If you'll excuse a personal remark, I imagine that the judge sentencing you to time did not include scalding or hot water burning as part of his/her decision. However from what I've read, ADA addresses controls that can be operated by people with disabilities, not temperature directly.
ANSI/ASME A112.1016-2011/ASSE 1016-2011/CSA B125.16-11 Performance Requirements for Automatic Compensating Valves for Individual Showers and Tub/Shower Combinations addresses temperature control requirements [12]
In the U.S. & Canada several companies, including Bradly Corporation, provide bath temperature controls that comply with standards and are "tamper resistant" that might meet the needs of your institution where there is a reason to not provide individual shower temperature controls. [11]
Jason Renner in Hospitality Construction magazine described current ADA requirements but I was sorry to see that allows a temperature of 120F. [3]

Please keep me posted on how things progress, What we both learn may help me help someone else.

As for your hope that our reply would be unbiased, InspectAPedia is an independent publisher of building, environmental, and forensic inspection, diagnosis, and repair information for the public - we have no business nor financial connection with any manufacturer or service provider discussed at our website. We are dedicated to making our information as accurate, complete, useful, and unbiased as possible: we very much welcome critique, questions, or content suggestions for our web articles.

Question: too-hot water sagged plastic piping and led to a scalding burn

Home inspector did not check domestic HW temp, but noted that a 10 foot length of unsupported 2" PVC drain had a 4" dip mid length. Discovered later (after burns) HW was 150F, explaining the softening and sag of the drain pipe.

House was built in 2003 with several prior occupants. Heater was Buderus Oil indirect tank, manufacturer provides no install instructions (and does not care) or warnings (like you showed for A.O. Smith re: Aquestat selection).

The installer select a Honeywell with 140-210 range and a 15 degree differential, which means even if you checked HW temp it might be 125 now, and 150 later.

CPSC regulates gas/oil but NOT indrect heaters. Ques: Any other governing body for Mfg??? - Harvey 12/19/2012

Reply:

Harvey,

the standards and advice for avoiding scalding burns from domestic hot water supply are in the article above. Watch out also for burst piping, leaks and related burns or leak damage where plastic water supply piping is installed on hot water heating systems and building supply.

Buderus provides several models of indirect fired water heaters, Models Buderus SST150-40, SST250-65, SST300-80, and SST450-119.

A review of the installation instructions for that equipment, available free at the company's website (see below) reaches a conclusion very different from your own about the company's concern for safety, including scalding burn hazards. The installation instructions plainly call for and show in the illustrations the installation of an anti-scald device (pointed to by the red line in the illustration above-left - click to enlarge). The following is a direct quotation from that document:

HOT WATER CAN SCALD!

• Water heated to temperatures for clothes washing, dish washing, and other sanitizing needs can scald and cause permanent injury.

• Children, elderly, and infirm or physically handicapped persons are more likely to be permanently injured by hot water. Never leave them unattended in a bathtub or shower. Never allow small children to use a hot water tap or draw their own bath.

• If anyone using hot water in the building fits the above description, or if state laws or local codes require certain water temperatures at hot water taps, you must take special precautions:

• Use lowest possible temperature setting.

• Install some type of tempering device, such as an automatic mixing valve, at hot water tap or water heater. Automatic mixing valve must be selected and installed according to valve manufacturer’s recommendations and instructions.

• Water passing out of drain valves may be extremely hot.

To avoid injury [from hot water or scalding burns]

• Make sure all connections are tight.

• Direct water flow away from any person

• Protection Must Be Taken Against Excessive Temperature and Pressure! Installation of a Temperature & Pressure (T&P) relief valve is required. [13]

See AQUASTAT CONTROL Functions for a discussion of that heater temperature control and how it affects heat from a tankless coil

For information about Buderus Heating Equipment contact Buderus USA, Bosch Thermotechnology, 50 Wentworth Avenue, Londonderry NH, 03053, Tel: 603-552-1100, Toll Free: 800-283-3787, Website: http://www.buderus.us/

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Technical Reviewers & References

Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.

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- The Illustrated Home illustrates construction details and building components, a reference for owners & inspectors
[2] A.O. Smith water heater safety sticker: 182734-000 Rev.00 observed on the gas fired water heater shown at High Efficiency Gas Water Heaters
[3] Jason Renner, "ADA: Updated guidelines help clarify requirements for restrooms", Hospitality Construction, January/February 2007, pp. 88-89, retrieved 9/15/12, original source: http://www.bradleycorp.com/aboutus/pdfcontent/UpdatedGuidelines.pdf [copy on file as ADA_Restrooms_Renner.pdf]
[4] Thanks to reader J.S.A. for discussing hot water mixing valves and which way to turn the valve - July 2010
[5] Thanks to reader Athena for discussing hot water mixing valves and which way to turn the valve to make water hotter or cooler - October 2010.
[6] Thanks to reader Chris Martino for pointing out inconsistent text about which way to turn the hot water mixing valve or tempering valve. December 2010.
[7] Thanks to reader Bob for discussing clarifications needed to text about which way to turn the hot water mixing valve. January 2011.
[8] "Domestic Hot Water Scald Burn Lawsuits, The Who, What, When, Why, Where, How", Dr. D. Bynum Jr., Vernon L. Petri, Esq., John T. Myers, paralegal, Seminar and Technical Paper for the 25-28 Oct 98 Annual ASPE Meeting at the Indianapolis Convention Center, Indianapolis IN, websearch 09/21/2010,original source: http://media.wattswater.com/F-H20LS-Reprint.pdf [Large PDF]
[9] Watts, 815 Chestnut Street, North Andover, MA, USA 01845-6098, web search 09/18/2010 original source: http://www.watts.com/pages/learnAbout/reducingValves.asp?catId=64
[10] 52 Questions and thier Answers [about] Hot Water [Heaters, Explosions & Water Heater Safety], Watts Regulator Company (1973)
[11] Bradley Corporation, W142 N9101 Fountain Boulevard Menomonee Falls, WI 53051 Phone: 1-800-BRADLEY (1-800-272-3539) Fax: 262-251-5817 Website: http://www.bradleycorp.com
[12] ASSE 1016/cUPC (This is short for ANSI/ASME A112.1016-2011/ASSE 1016-2011/CSA B125.16-11 Performance Requirements for Automatic Compensating Valves for Individual Showers and Tub/Shower Combinations (with Update No. 1) American Society of Mechanical Engineers / 01-Oct-2011) ISBN: 9780791833995- retrieved 9/16/12, original source for a pdf that outlines that document http://files.asme.org/Catalog/Codes/PDF/30547.pdf where 3.5 addresses temperature
[13] "Indirect Fired Water Heaters Installation and Operating Manual" Buderus USA, Bosch Thermotechnology, 50 Wentworth Avenue, Londonderry NH, 03053, Tel: 603-552-1100, Toll Free: 800-283-3787, Website: http://www.buderus.us/, retrieved 12/28/2012, original source: http://www.buderus.us/files/201010132159230.SST-Tank-Manual-2010-10.pdf [copy on file]
[14] Ontario Building Code, Building and Development Branch, Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing, Telephone: (416) 585-6666, E-mail: codeinfo@mah.gov.on.ca Website: www.obc.mah.gov.on.ca
[15] American Burn Association, ABA Central Office, 311 S. Wacker Drive, Suite 4150, Chicago, IL 60606, TEL: (312) 642-9260, Website: http://www.ameriburn.org/ - also see
- American Burn Association. National Burn Repository, 2005 report. Chicago, IL: American Burn Association; 2006. Available at http://www.ameriburn.org/NBR2005.pdf.
- Ehrlich AR, Kathpalia S, Boyarsky Y, Schechter A, Bijur P. Elderly patients discharged home from the emergency department with minor burns. Burns 2005;31:717--20.
- Alden NE, Bessey PQ, Rabbitts A, Hyden PJ, Yurt RW. Tap water scalds among seniors and the elderly: socio-economics and implications for prevention. Burns 2007;33:666--9.
[16] "Nonfatal Scald-Related Burns Among Adults Aged ≥65 Years --- United States, 2001--2006", U.S. CDC, retrieved 12/28/2012, original source: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5836a1.htm, copy on file as Scald_Burns_CDC.pdf
[17] Tap Water Scald Database, Ravech, Roy & Ravech, P.C., Attorneys specializing in representing of injured people, www.ultranet.com-jroy/page10
[18] Tap Water Scalding Alert, Electric Water Heaters, gas water heaters, furnace water heaters, www.safesoundkids.com/safetips
[19] Fire and Burn Injury Interventions to prevent Scald Burns, http://depts.washington.edu/hiprc/chilinjury/topic/fireburns/scalds
[20] Scald Burns, Harborview Medical Center, www.atomz.com/search
[21] Scalding Hot Water, ATLA Litigation Group, www.tap-water-burn.com
[22] Boston Shriners Researchers Complete Burn Survivor Study, www.shriners.org/WhatsNew/jama-00
[23] Scald Fact Sheet, Deaths and Injuries; How and Where Burn Deaths and Injuries Occur; Who is At Risk; Burn Prevention Effectiveness; Burn Protection Laws, Health Care Costs and Savings; Prevention Tips, www.safekids.org/fact99/burns99
[24] Scalds & Falls of Infants & Small Children, U.S. CPSC, www.healthtouch.com/bin/Econtent
[25] Scald Prevention for Young Children, Oklahoma State Department of Health, retrieved 12/28/2012, original source: http://www.ok.gov/health/Disease, _Prevention,_ Preparedness/Injury_Prevention_ Service/Fact_Sheets/IPS-FShtm_Scald_Prevention_English.html

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Domestic and Commercial Oil Burners, Charles H. Burkhardt, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York 3rd Ed 1969.
The Steam Book, 1984, Training and Education Department, Fluid Handling Division, ITT [probably out of print, possibly available from several home inspection supply companies] Fuel Oil and Oil Heat Magazine, October 1990, offers an update,
Principles of Steam Heating, Dan Holohan, technical editor of Fuel Oil and Oil Heat magazine, 389 Passaic Ave., Fairfield, NJ 07004 ($12.+1.25 postage/handling).
"Residential Steam Heating Systems", Instructional Technologies Institute, Inc., 145 "D" Grassy Plain St., Bethel, CT 06801 800/227-1663 [home inspection training material] 1987
"Residential Hydronic (circulating hot water) Heating Systems", Instructional Technologies Institute, Inc., 145 "D" Grassy Plain St., Bethel, CT 06801 800/227-1663 [home inspection training material] 1987
Boilers, Boiler Conversions, James E. Brumbaugh, ISBN 0-672-23389-4 (v. 1) Volume II, Oil, Gas, and Coal Burners, Controls, Ducts, Piping, Valves, James E. Brumbaugh, ISBN 0-672-23390-7 (v. 2) Volume III, Radiant Heating, Water Heaters, Ventilation, Air Conditioning, Heat Pumps, Air Cleaners, James E. Brumbaugh, ISBN 0-672-23383-5 (v. 3) or ISBN 0-672-23380-0 (set) Special Sales Director, Macmillan Publishing Co., 866 Third Ave., New York, NY 10022. Macmillan Publishing Co., NY
Installation Guide for Residential Hydronic Heating Systems
Installation Guide #200, The Hydronics Institute, 35 Russo Place, Berkeley Heights, NJ 07922
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Table of Scalding Temperatures & Exposure Times that Cause Hot Water Burns

Hot Water Anti-Scald Limits: Laws & Regulations

Federal Regulations on Hot Water Scald Protection

Additional anti-scald protection regulation details:

Best Practices Guide to Scald Protection

The U.S. CDC offers this simple safety advice to avoid scalding burns at plumbing fixtures:

Use of Point of Supply Water Pressure-Balancing Valves to Control Temperature & Avoid Scalding

Use of Point of Supply or Point of Use Thermostatic Mixing Valves to Avoid Scalding Burns

Plumbing Fixture Retrofits Used to Avoid Scalding Burns

Table of States or Provinces Adopting Specific Anti-Scald Regulations: State, Code, Date

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about hot water set temperatures, scalding hot water burn hazards, and steaming hot water faucets

Question: when I turn on our hot water faucet steam comes out - what should I do?

Reply: there is an immediate risk of water heater explosion

Should you open or leave open a hot water faucet if steam comes out? Will that prevent a water heater explosion?

Question: is it legal to have showers with no hot water temperature adjustment?

Reply:

Question: too-hot water sagged plastic piping and led to a scalding burn

Reply:

HOT WATER CAN SCALD!

To avoid injury [from hot water or scalding burns]

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