How to Identify Harmless Black Mold on Indoor Surfaces

BLACK MOLD, HARMLESS - Photographs of harmless cosmetic black mold on indoor surfaces
- How to recognize cosmetic or harmless Ceratocystis or Ophistoma "bluestain" mold indoors
- Links to photos of other indoor materials that are not mold
- Identifying sapstain fungal growth on wood, lumber, logs, etc.
- Are there remedies for removing fungal sapstain fungi problems on wood?
- Possible prevention of sapstain fungal growth on wood.
COSMETIC MOLD, RECOGNIZE - separate article
MOLD APPEARANCE - WHAT MOLD LOOKS LIKE - separate article
MOLD APPEARANCE - STUFF THAT IS NOT MOLD - separate article
Questions & Answers about cosmetic black or dark colored mold in buildings
References

Click to Show or Hide Related Topics

InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.

How to recognize harmless black or dark colored indoor mold. When investigating a building for a mold problem, you can save mold test costs by learning how to recognize Harmless Black Mold but which is often mistaken by some un-trained or inexperienced "mold inspectors" or "mold remediators" as more serious contamination which they call "toxic black mold".

HARMLESS COSMETIC BLACK MOLD in buildings

Some black mold in buildings arrived on the framing lumber and is harmless both to humans and to the building materials on which it is found. Often a visual inspection for certain clues (discussed below) can make you very confident of when mold appeared on lumber and what sort it probably is.

Photograph: typical cosmetic bluestain mold on new framing lumber, floor joists - © Daniel Friedman

Because some clients have on occasion sent samples to our lab that really should not have been collected, much less looked-at, we provide this library of photographs harmless indoor mold and of things that are "not mold" and don't need to be tested.

In many cases these are substances that you can easily learn to recognize in buildings by simple visual inspection of the mold and its abutting and surrounding surfaces.

Save your mold test money, and increase the accuracy of your mold contamination inspection or test for toxic or allergenic mold in buildings: review these items to learn recognize non-fungal materials or even possibly harmless cosmetic "black mold" often mistaken for "toxic fungal growth."

Also see Recognize Cosmetic Mold, and see our online mold photographic library of what black mold looks like in buildings, located at Black Mold.

Definition & Images of Sapstain Wood Fungi

"Sapstain" fungi are molds that grow principally on or in sapwood. There are three groups of sap-stain molds commonly discussed in the literature. Some literature also refers to "bluestain" fungi that is just about the same grouping. What are sapwood and heartwood anyway? Sapwood forms the main portion of a tree while heartwood is found only at the center of the tree. Most building framing lumber is almost entirely sapwood.

Dematiaceous molds (this just means molds whose spores appear dark or "black") including the two most common mold genera on earth, Cladosporium sp. (the "king of molds"), and Alternaria sp. (A runner-up for mold king based on frequency of occurrence).

Black yeasts, a sub-group of the mold family that include two very common molds Aureobasidium sp. (often found in moist attics on plywood as well as on wood framing), and Rhinocladiella (less often found in buildings).

Our photo at left shows a closeup of Aureobasidium sp. under the microscope. More mold microphotos can be seen at MOLD BY MICROSCOPE, and photographs of common molds found in buildings can be seen at MOLD APPEARANCE - WHAT MOLD LOOKS LIKE.

Ophistomoid fungi, a group that includes Ceratocystis sp. and Ophistoma sp., and related fungi - these are the most common cosmetic black molds found on framing lumber and sometimes on plywood, and are the main subject of this article - see our page top photo as well as more photographs below. Because it is difficult in the lab to distinguish between Ceratocystis sp. and Ophistoma sp. by microscopic examination, and because these are not problem molds, most labs combine and report these fungi in lab samples as either Ophistomoid fungi, or as Ceratocystis/Ophistoma group fungi.

Watch out: building materials with cosmetic mold on them can also support growth of other problem mold species if later conditions are right for new mold growth. Many of our lumberyard samples of mold on wood examined in our own study of this phenomenon, especially samples collected from (wet) pressure-treated lumber contained both harmless cosmetic molds and an overgrowth of potentially harmful molds including mostly Penicillium sp. and some Aspergillus sp.

So inspect "cosmetic" mold growth areas carefully using good lighting techniques - see FLASHLIGHT HELPS FIND MOLD for details. Make sure that the obvious harmless "black mold" you see (such as shown in the photograph at left) is the only mold growth found.

As we describe later in this article at What to do about Cosmetic Molds on Indoor Building Surfaces, while most cosmetic mold can simply be left alone, we suggest that you do not assume that just because wood is obviously stained with cosmetic mold, that no harmful molds are present, particularly where damp, wet, or treated lumber is involved. Other fungi may also be present, so a closer look might be appropriate.

But if the mold growth is interrupted, it almost certainly was on the lumber at time of construction and is unlikely to represent an active building mold problem. That does not mean there could not be some other indoor mold problem, but if your mold looks like the photo on the rafter in the left of the photo just below, you are not looking at active building mold growth.

Interrupted Mold Growth Confirms No Active Mold Growth on Indoor Framing Lumber

Ceratocystis/Ophistoma black mold on framing lumber is in this case cosmetic and dates from construction Cosmetic molds, such as the Ceratocystis sp./Ophistoma sp. group of Ascomycetes are not likely to be harmful to people nor to the wood they're found on. In these photographs of black mold on building framing you can see that the black mold "stops suddenly" at the cut end of a rafter (photo at left) and where a rafter meets the roof sheathing.

Incidentally, that light brown material on the rafter in the upper right of our photo (left) is mud from construction, not mold.

"Interrupted" mold growth in this pattern forms unambiguous and compelling evidence that this mold was on the particular rafter at the time of construction. You can see the interrupted black mold growth on framing lumber in our photo at left as well as the two black mold on wood framing photographs above on this page.

While there are technical exceptions (such as mold growth interruption on drywall at a drywall taping joint), in general, indoor surface growing mold does not stop at an arbitrary "straight line" cut in or on a building material. (You can see this interrupted mold pattern growth on drywall at SAMPLING DRYWALL.)

Other dark growths that may look "black" on wood surfaces include black yeasts such as Aureobasidium, often A. pullulans, as well as some of the most common species of Cladosporium sp.and Alternaria sp., some of the more common dark molds that we find on plywood roof decking in attics and on occasion on rafters. You can see photographs of these other dark post-construction attic molds at ATTIC MOLD, WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE.

Mold on framing lumber (C) Daniel Friedman

But the dominant "black mold" found on framing lumber at the lumber yard and in new construction, as well as remaining in homes after construction have been completed are the ophistomoids Ceratocystis and Ophistoma, whereas Aureobasidium sp. and Cladosporium sp. are more likely to have developed on a building surface after construction.

"Pressure Treated lumber" which is sold as resistant to rot and resistant to wood destroying insects is very often not only wet when purchased, but is often mold contaminated with several species of Penicillium sp. or Aspergillus sp.

We confirmed this condition by a survey of building materials at several lumber suppliers in New York, using tape samples of visible mold on the surfaces of these products as well as by testing framing lumber found at active building sites (photo at left and others on this page). Various sources have reported that Ophiostoma grows in culture on media that contains cycloheximides, an agricultural fungicide that inhibits protein synthesis, so it is plausible to pose that it may have grown on wet treated lumber after the wood was processed with fungicides intended to prevent insect attack. It's ironic that treatment to prevent termite or carpenter attack on framing lumber appears to actually increase the growth of these molds on the same product.

We also found that sometimes "green" pressure-treated lumber, often Southern yellow pine (SYP), contained both cosmetic black molds (described above) and additional Penicillium sp. or Aspergillus sp. We don't know if the latter molds appeared later in the life of the lumber, perhaps parasitically on top of existing biological materials, but there was no doubt that it was present on new pressure treated wood which we examined both at building supply houses and at some building sites. An example of a parasitic mold commonly found growing on the ophistomoids is Gonadobotryium sp.

Photograph of cosmetic black mold on a building beam Here's another example showing that a single pre-moldy-2x joist was used to make a built-up basement beam. See this photo of black mold on a built-up wooden girder or beam?

Mold is visible on only one of three 2x12s? This is not live mold growing in the attic nor basement. A microscopic examination confirmed that these surfaces were Ceratocystis/Ophistoma.

More about stuff that looks like scary black toxic mold but is actually something else, something harmless, is at our Mold Information Center

What to do about Cosmetic Molds on Indoor Building Surfaces

If you are reasonably sure that you’ve got mold like Ceratocystis/Ophistoma that came in on the lumber at time of framing, it’s harmless and also is not likely to grow into a bigger problem. In fact indoors we have never found Ceratocystis/Ophistoma mold in an active growth state inside of a building – we imagine that it needs different (wetter) growing conditions than found in a building. Indoors, even if Ceratocystis/Ophistoma mold was alive, it’s cosmetic-only. Cleaning or removal of a cosmetic mold is entirely optional and would be done (or not) in a building for reasons of appearance, not health.

Leave Cosmetic Mold Alone on Dry Indoor Framing Lumber

If the cosmetic mold you see is like that in our photographs on this page, that is, there is no evidence of active mold growth and the mold obviously came from the lumber yard and the lumber is dry, or kiln-dried, and the environment where the wood is found has remained dry, the mold is only cosmetic and no action is necessary.

Clean Moldy Pressure Treated Framing Lumber that is to be Used Indoors

When using pressure-treated lumber for interior framing, clean off any visible mold. Simple power-washing would suffice

This step is not necessary and would be inappropriate for the same lumber when used outdoors, such as for a deck or an entry stair. But inside, such lumber may be used for sill plates or in some cases we have seen it used to re-frame a rotted floor over a wet crawl space.

Importing a large Aspergillus sp. colony on the floor framing surface over a crawl space provided an immediately-detectable high level of airborne Aspergillus sp. in the room above this area, as these spores move easily in convection air currents moving from the crawl area up through the building.

For this reason, if visibly moldy treated lumber is to be used in indoor construction we recommend that it be physically cleaned first - such as by using a power washer and deck cleaning solution. "Sterilizing" such lumber to try to "kill" mold is unnecessary and inappropriate.

Just clean the moldy lumber, don't try to sterilize it. (See MOLD KILLING GUIDE for details of why killing mold is not the most useful approach.)

What if I remove "cosmetic" indoor mold and it reappears? If you remove a mold you believe was "cosmetic" and later you find new mold growth in that area:

the original mold was not a cosmetic genera/species and is one that can grow indoors or
you have an entirely new fungal growth problem
you need to remove the new mold growth and you need to identify the reason it formed (a leak or moisture problem) and you need to correct the cause

ANY indoor building condition that produces or has produced new or recurrent indoor mold growth on building surfaces means there is also a risk of both visible and hidden problematic molds of genera/species other than just cosmetic molds. Even when you test and identify a specific mold on a building surface you should not assume that the mold you've identified is the only problem, or even the most serious mold problem in the building, unless you have also completed a through, expert diagnostic inspection of the building.

To prevent problem indoor mold your focus should be on watching for and correcting leaks or moisture problems in your building. For details on how to prevent indoor mold growth in buildings see:

Building Floods: quick steps after a building flood or plumbing leak can prevent costly mold contamination
Mold Action Guide after Flooding: How to Minimize Mold Damage After a Building Flood
How to Prevent Mold: how to avoid mold growth in buildings: priorities, repairs, products
Humidity Control to Avoid Mold: How Low Should You Keep Indoor Humidity to Avoid a Mold Problem
Mold-Resistant Building Practices some detailed suggestions from an expert on preventing mold growth indoors
Ozone Warnings - Use of Ozone as a "mold" remedy is ineffective and may be dangerous.
Meruliporia incrassata - "Poria" the house eating fungus Meruliporia incrassata or perhaps a different mold, Serpula lacrymans - which one is the "house eating fungus" - what it house rotting mold like in a building and under the microscope

In summary about cosmetic indoor mold: If at present you’ve found evidence of mold growth inside of a building other than Ceratocystis/Ophistoma then it’s moisture and leaks that need your attention, not the Ceratocystis/Ophistoma.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about cosmetic mold & sapstain molds on wood & lumber

Question: I am a chainsaw carver who deals with blue fungi mold in logs - how can I get rid of blue fungal growth on my wood?

I am a chainsaw carver who deals with blue fungi mold in logs; I have attached a photo. Can you provide information on this and getting rid of it; I have numerous colleagues who also like to know! - S.N.

Reply:

Nice photo, S.N. I can't ID a mold fungus from that or any photo alone (only a fool would claim to). That said, it's indded possible we're looking at a blue sapstain such as Ceratocystis sp. or Ophistoma sp. But before we go messing with bleach - a cosmetic repair that has its own problems, let's run through some diagnostic questions about wood stains and blue sapstain fungal growth in your wood.

1. Let's make sure it's not some contaminant that fell onto the wood, or that a fungal growth is not being encouraged by how wood is stored or by something else left lying atop the wood that traps or holds water. In the photo the stain looks as if it has run from water - was this log slice standing vertically or on an angle?

And there is something odd about most of those stains being all in a straight line like that.

Normally mold growing on wood would begin from a spore landing on the surface, and would grow often in a rounded pattern out from that point; spores or fungi don't land on wood in a dead straight line.

Sapstain fungal growth (bluestain) may indeed not look random on the wood, as our photo from Winfield shows at left. The fungal growth is probably following the cellular structure of the wood itself from where the first inoculating spore(s) found a home.

Our other photos (below) show additional typical mold growth patterns on wood & lumber.

But something straight that was placed on the wood might indeed cause straight-line staining. That makes me wonder if your stains are in fact being caused by stickers you are using to separate slabs of wood you are trying to dry (stickers themselves are too wet or are a poor material choice), combined with a slow drying process, possibly aggravated by storing your wood exposed to rain and in warm weather. Woodweb discusses sticker stain and provides some excellent advice if this is the root of your stains.[19]

2. Let's do a little testing for wood penetration of the stain. Have you tried cutting a sample with a gouge chisel or knife?

Does the stain extend into the wood grain or is it mostly surface? I suspect you'll reply the stain has penetrated the wood surface (whch these sapstain fungi certainly do.)

3. Does the stain always appear in this pattern on all of your wood samples? Take a look at the example photos I include from our two reference texts.

4. Is this stain in the wood when you buy it or cut down the tree, or is it appearing on the wood while you have it in storage, perhaps drying?

5. I could examine (pro bono) both a wood gouge sample of stained (and a control of not-stained) wood (just a 1/2" square would do) and a tape sample if you can get the material onto a clear adhesive tape - see MOLD TEST KITS for DIY MOLD TESTS -

If you are already certain it's a fungus it's probably blue sapstain such as one of the two species I've cited above, and that I discuss online at Recognize Harmless Black Mold, you'll see in my photos that the mold does not grow on wood surfaces quite like the pattern in your photo.

My reference texts on this topic, by Wingfield et als, has (p142) sapstain photos in black and white.

I'm posting here copies of some reference in-situ mold on wood photos for your comment (or comments from other readers) along with similar images from Wang & Zabel the other useful text for this topic. [1] [8]

Remedies for Sapstained Logs, Log Slices, Wood or Lumber?

Unfortunately if the bluestain is deep into the wood it's almost impossible to remove completely. Worse, we have read that some fungi may be present but not visible as a stain until the wood has been further dried & cured.[19]

I've had some success with detergent followed by careful treating with bleach solution, and a thorough washing off a wood surface to reduce or eliminate stains (and bleach odors) in a finished product. But deep stuff is hard to deal with. Selection of wood not already visibly infected, and prevention of mold growth on stored wood by attending the conditions on which we store it may be in order. I know that may be tough for a chainsaw wood carver, since you work with big sections of logs that remain outdoors. Let's get more confident in our diagnosis and then pursue remedies further.

Blue stain or sapstain prevention (& sticker stain prevention) in or on wood

Handling moisture, both in the wood itself, and in the environment where wood is stored for drying and before use, is the single most effective thing you can do to reduce fungal growth on and in the wood itself. Speeding the wood curing or drying process, including storing wood on separation stickers, off the ground, and under cover (protected from rain and snow but not in an airtight enclosure) could make a significant difference in the rate of bluestain or sapstain occurence on your wood.

If your wood stickers are not absolutely dry (below 10% moisture) they could be causing sticker stain as we discussed above and as I suspected from the stain pattern in your photo.

If your wood is not stained when you first rough-cut it, you may be able to retard if not prevent sapstain growth by dipping the log sections in a fungicidal chemical (or enzyme). The problem is that the wood may be inoculated and your treatment may not penetrate the lumber adequately. That's why pressure-treated wood is "pressure treated" (though the pressure treatment target is not fungi and the chemicals used don't seem to retard fungus growth in that case).

...

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Questions & answers or comments about cosmetic black or dark colored mold in buildings.

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Technical Reviewers & References

Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.

[1] Ceratocystis and Ophistoma, Taxonomy, Ecology, and Pathogenicity, MJ Wingfield, KA Seifert, JF Webber Eds., APS Press 1993, ISBN 0-89054-156-6
Hanlin, Richard T. 1998. Illustrated Genera of Ascomycetes. Vol. II. APS Press, St. Paul. 238 pp.
[2] Schmidt, O. and D. Czeschlik. 2006. Wood and Tree Fungi. Springer, Secaucus. 336 pp.
[3] Lieutier, F., K. R. Day, J.-C. Gregoire, A. Battisti and H.F. Evans. (Eds.) 2004. Bark and Wood Boring Insects in Living Trees in Europe, A Synthesis. Springer, Secaucus. 569 pp.
[4] Alexopolous, C.J., C.W. Mims, M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology, 4th ed. (or later) John Wiley & Sons, New York. 869pp.
[5] Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute: Ophiostomatoid Fungi: Expanding Frontiers
[6] "Lumberyard Mold and Sap Stain", Francina Thadigiri, EMLab P&K Analyst, Environmental Reporter (email newsletter), Vol. 7 No. 5, June 2009
[7] Fifth Kingdom, Bryce Kendrick, ISBN13: 9781585100224, is available from the InspectAPedia online bookstore - we recommend the CD-ROM version of this book. This 3rd/edition is a compact but comprehensive encyclopedia of all things mycological. Every aspect of the fungi, from aflatoxin to zppspores, with an accessible blend of verve and wit. The 24 chapters are filled with up-to-date information of classification, yeast, lichens, spore dispersal, allergies, ecology, genetics, plant pathology, predatory fungi, biological control, mutualistic symbioses with animals and plants, fungi as food, food spoilage and mycotoxins.
[8] Fungi From Utility Poles in the Eastern United States, Identification Manual for, CJK Wang & RA Zabel Ed., Allen Press, 1990, ISBN 0-93-0009-31-2
[9] Pictorial Atlas of Soil and Seed Fungi, , 2nd Ed., Tsuneo Watanabe, 2002 CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-1118-7
[10] Fungus, The Whole, Vol. 1, Bryce Kendrick, Ed., National Museum of Natural Sciences (et als), 1979, ISBN 0-660-00146-2 (available from B. Kendrick, Waterloo, Canada)
[11] Fungus, The Whole, Vol. 2, Bryce Kendrick,Ed., National Museum of Natural Sciences (et als), 1979, ISBN 0-660-00146-2 (available from B. Kendrick, Waterloo, Canada)
[12] Fusarium , Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium, Summerall et als. Ed., APS Press 2001, ISBN 0-89054-268-6
[13] Hyphomycetes their perfect and imperfect connexions, K. Tubaki, J Cramer 1981, ISBN 3-7682-1267-X
[14] Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes, , M.B. Ellis, CAB International 1971, ISBN 0-85198-027-8, Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey, England, ABE-Print.com
[15] More Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes, M.B. Ellis, CAB International 1976, ISBN 0-85198-3650-, Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, w:st="on">Surrey, England
[16] Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi, 4th Ed., HL Barnett & Barry B. Hunter, American Phytopathological Society Press, St. Paul, 1998, ISBN 0-89054-192-2
[17] Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates, Martin B. Ellis & J.Pamela Ellis, Crook Helm, London & Sydney 1988, ISBN 0-88192-115-7
[18] Fungi, Identifying Filamentous, A Clinical Laboratory Handbook, Guy St-Germain, Richard Summerbell, Star Publishing, 1996, ISBN 0-89863-177-7 (English)
[19] "Causes and Cures for Stains In Dried Lumber - How to avoid various types of staining in kiln-dried lumber. 1998.", WWOODWEB, web search 5/1/12, origial source: woodweb.com/knowledge_base/Causes_and_Cures_for_Stains_In_Dried_Lumber.html

Online Mold & Particle Identification Aids at InspectAPedia.com

MOLD ATLAS & PARTICLES INDEX, Pathogens, Allergens and Other Indoor Particles - actual and possible medical health effects of Mold (separate online document)
MOLD APPEARANCE - WHAT MOLD LOOKS LIKE Photos of what mold looks like in buildings, organized by mold color and appearance.
MOLD FREQUENCY in buildings Table of what mold genera/species are frequently found in indoor mold tests.
MOLD GROWTH ON SURFACES, PHOTOS Photos of what mold looks like in buildings, organized by mold growth on various kinds of building surfaces and contents or items found in buildings. Mold in situ.
MOLD GROWTH on SURFACES, TABLE OF, Summary table of what mold genera/species are frequently found on various building surfaces and materials
MOLD APPEARANCE - STUFF THAT IS NOT MOLD Photos of material that is not mold but is sometimes mistaken for mold
Recognize Harmless Black Mold Photos of of often recognizable, usually harmless or cosmetic black mold on wood
MOLD BY MICROSCOPE Mold under the microscope - photo identification of the most common indoor molds found in buildings

Contact Us to suggest changes and additions to these online mold identification guide

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.
Environmental Health & Investigation Bibliography - our technical library on indoor air quality inspection, testing, laboratory procedures, forensic microscopy, etc.
Adkins and Adkins Dictionary of Roman Religion discusses Robigus, the Roman god of crop protection and the legendary progenitor of wheat rust fungus.
Kansas State University, department of plant pathology, extension plant pathology web page on wheat rust fungus: see http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/path-ext/factSheets/Wheat/Wheat%20Leaf%20Rust.asp
"A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and Your Home", U.S. Environmental Protection Agency US EPA - includes basic advice for building owners, occupants, and mold cleanup operations. See http://www.epa.gov/mold/moldguide.htm
US EPA - Mold Remediation in Schools and Commercial Building [Copy on file at /sickhouse/EPA_Mold_Remediation_in_Schools.pdf ] - US EPA
US EPA - Una Breva Guia a Moho - Hongo [Copy on file as /sickhouse/EPA_Moho_Guia_sp.pdf - en Espanol
"A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and Your Home", U.S. Environmental Protection Agency US EPA - includes basic advice for building owners, occupants, and mold cleanup operations. See http://www.epa.gov/mold/moldguide.htm
"Disease Prevention Program for Certain Vegetable Crops," David B. Langston, Jr., Extension Plant Pathologist - Vegetables, University of Georgia (PDF document) original source: www.reeis.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/209797.html
"Disease Prevention in Home Vegetable Gardens," Patricia Donald, Department of Plant Microbiology and Pathology, Lewis Jett
Department of Horticulture, University of Missouri Extension - extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6202
"Management of Powdery Mildew, Leveillula taurica, in Greenhouse Peppers," Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, British Columbia - Original source: www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/peppermildew.htm
Fifth Kingdom, Bryce Kendrick, ISBN13: 9781585100224, is available from the InspectAPedia online bookstore - we recommend the CD-ROM version of this book. This 3rd/edition is a compact but comprehensive encyclopedia of all things mycological. Every aspect of the fungi, from aflatoxin to zppspores, with an accessible blend of verve and wit. The 24 chapters are filled with up-to-date information of classification, yeast, lichens, spore dispersal, allergies, ecology, genetics, plant pathology, predatory fungi, biological control, mutualistic symbioses with animals and plants, fungi as food, food spoilage and mycotoxins.
Fungi, Identifying Filamentous, A Clinical Laboratory Handbook, Guy St-
US EPA: Mold Remediation in Schools and Commercial Building [Copy on file at /sickhouse/EPA_Mold_Remediation_in_Schools.pdf ] - US EPA
Mycology, Fundamentals of Diagnostic, Fran Fisher, Norma B. Cook, W.B. Saunders Co. 1998, ISBN 0-7216-5006-6 (buy this book at Amazon)
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