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 Loose or Cracked Structural Brick Building Walls - Diagnosis & Repair Guide
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InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.
This article explains types of damage to structural brick walls. We explain how to recognize, diagnose, & evaluate movement and cracks in brick walls and how to recognize brick wall bowing or bulging and cracking failures. Our page top photo shows water and frost damage to a building in Poughkeepsie, NY. The author's hand and fingers are "measuring" the air space between brick wythes. In this case bulging of the outer brick wythes have opened up the air space beyond its original design. The wall, or portions of it are un-stable and at serious risk of collapse.
Types of foundation cracks, crack patterns, differences in the meaning of cracks in different foundation materials, site conditions, building history,
and other evidence of building movement and damage are described to
assist in recognizing foundation defects and to help the inspector separate cosmetic or low-risk conditions from
those likely to be important and potentially costly to repair.
Green links show where you are. © Copyright 2013 InspectAPedia.com, All Rights Reserved. Author Daniel Friedman.
How to Identify Brick Veneer Walls versus Structural Brick Walls
Brick Wall Type Definitions:
Definition of structural brick walls
 A structural brick wall is built to actually support the building floors and roof. At a minimum a structural brick wall is comprised of at least two wythes of brick bonded together by bricks placed crosswise in the wall or by metal fasteners.
The wythes of brick are separated by an air space both for wall width dimensioning and for drainage (brick masonry cavity walls). We illustrate the properties of structural brick walls below at Structural Brick Wall Construction Details.
Our photo (left) shows a water-damaged structural wall that was supporting an exterior porch. Thanks to an opening in this brick wall where bricks have fallen out due to water damage, you can see the air space between the wythes of brick. A bond course is also visible at the top course of bricks in the photo. This is a two-wythe structural brick wall that was supporting the porch.
A "structural brick wall" is one that contributes to the support of the structure. Its multiple brick wythes give width and strength to the wall and are usually separated by an air space of about an inch to form a thicker, more dry wall. The wythes are tied or joined together at intervals by bond courses of brick laid across the wythes to connect them, or by steel fasteners or wire mesh or other means. Some structural masonry walls may be faced with brick (a brick veneer) that actually covers masonry block, stone, or even structural clay products.
Referring to our photo above once again, other porch designs more often support the porch floor with piers or columns even if a brick wall was built to enclose the under-porch space. In those structures the brick wall may not be itself, contributing to the support of the structure and hence, not "structural".
Readers of the article series BRICK FOUNDATIONS & WALLS should see these detailed articles on brick veneer walls and brick structural walls: BRICK STRUCTURAL WALL Loose Bulged and BRICK VENEER WALL Loose, Bulged and BRICK WALL DRAINAGE WEEP HOLES and also BRICK WALL THERMAL EXPANSION CRACKS. Also see this close companion article: FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION which discusses in detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
Definition of wythe or brick wythe
- Each continuous vertical section of masonry one unit in thickness
- The thickness of masonry separating flues in a chimney - Masonry Design Manual
If you look at a brick masonry wall, one brick thickness of the wall is one wythe. A brick veneer wall constructed using full-dimension bricks will be one brick wythe in thickness (of the veneer). The total wall thickness will include the veneer wythe plus the thickness of the wall structure itself.
Definition of veneer walls
A veneer wall of brick or stone is not a supporting structure. Rather it's a brick (or stone) "skin" or brick facing that is secured to the building (anchored brick veneer on wood frame construction) to give the appearance of a brick or stone building.
Definition of brick veneer: A brick veneer is a single wythe of masonry for facing purposes, not considered as contributing to the structural value of the wall or surface. - Masonry Design Manual. In fact, the structure must be able to carry the weight of the veneer. We illustrate the construction properties of brick veneer walls at Brick Veneer Wall Construction Details
Carson Dunlop Associates sketch (wall detail at far left) illustrates the usual manner in which a brick veneer wall is supported at the wall bottom. |
Structural Brick Wall Construction Details
Bond Courses Identify Structural Brick Walls - often
Bond courses tie together the multiple wythes of bricks that form a structural brick wall.
You can spot a bond course by noticing the "ends" of bricks rather than the longer "stretcher" courses of brick. Those ends show (usually) that bricks were placed in the wall across the wythes of brick that comprise a structural brick wall.
Photos of running bond courses and Flemish bond courses in structural brick walls:
In our photo of a structural brick wall in a pre-1900 building in Hudson, NY (at left) you can see the horizontal running-bond courses - those "ends of bricks" seen in every fifth brick course. A Flemish bond brick wall pattern is shown in our photograph of a building on the Vassar College Campus (below-right).
Watch out: some structural brick walls may not show bond courses - the wythes of brick may have been tied together using steel wire or other fasteners.
Fake Bond Courses - Faux-Bonds for Appearance
Our photos (Below) show two very different cases: at left we see what looks like it might be a structural brick wall - to the left of the chimney where we see "bond courses" in the brickwork.
But wait! What's going on to the right of the chimney - there are no bond courses. Actually the wall at right was a brick veneer structure.
Bricks were applied over a concrete block building wall. The owner-builder, a mason himself, used "faux" bond courses in the some of the walls of his home - for aesthetic reasons.
By contrast, the brick walls in our collapsing brick structure (below right) included bond courses but could not tolerate a foundation collapse below nor frost damage from roof leaks from above. At BRICK FOUNDATIONS & WALLS we describe the collapse of the structural brick walled building shown at right.
Bulges: nderstanding Bulged or Bowed Structural Brick Walls: Collapse Hazards
Our sketch (below left), courtesy of Carson Dunlop Associates, shows what happens when a brick structural wall becomes bulged. This is an extremely dangerous condition threatening sudden and catastrophic building collapse.
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At BRICK FOUNDATION & WALL DEFECTS where we list types of brick wall and foundation defects, we illustrate cases of structural brick wall or foundation collapse. As we point out in that article,
Watch out: Any movement in a structural brick wall which risks having
broken the bond courses in the wall, and any movement in a brick veneer wall which has broken or loosened
the connections between the veneer to the underlying structure are potentially dangerous and risk collapsing masonry!
Also see FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION which discusses in detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location. |
Damage: Examples of Water & Frost Damage to Brick Walls
Water & Frost Damaged, Broken Bulging Brick Walls
Frost damage to this brick wall occurred due to roof spillage that runs down the building wall of this Poughkeepsie New York building, a college gymnasium presently serving other uses. Water entering the space behind this facing wythe of bricks on this wall has led to continued frost-push and risk of collapse of at least the external portions of the wall.
Cracked Bricks in Strutural Building Walls
The brick cracking on the facade of this New York City high rise building appears traceable to leaks on balconies at the abutment of balcony to the building structure.
Also see BRICK WALL THERMAL EXPANSION CRACKS.
Efflorescence Deposits on Brick Walls, Chimneys, Foundations
Efflorescence: white, yellow, brown deposits on Brick Walls, Chimneys, Foundations
Our photo (left) shows white mineral deposits on a structural brick wall. It is not a coincidence that nearby we also see lost mortar from joints in the same general area.
Controlling roof runoff to keep water from flowing over building walls is always a challenge, especially on larger, taller buildings where access to maintain the gutter system is more difficult.
But the most common cause of white fluffy mineral deposits on brick walls is water. See Efflorescence & white or brown deposits for details. |
Spalling Brick Building Walls
The brick spalling shown on this Beacon NY church (below-left) was caused by roof spillage and rain splash-up against the foundation wall. The structural brick walls on the second building (below right) show frost spalling damage to the brick wall, especially around the building windows.
The brick surface loss (surface spalling and loss of the hard glazed finish) that occurs due to weathering, water and salt exposure (this is a retaining wall along the FDR expressway in Manhattan) leads to more severe frost damage that can include cracking and frost "pop out" of sections of individual bricks or entire brick portions of the structure. Our second photo of brick spalling damage (below right) shows that a portion of the wall has been rebuilt.
Water-Damaged Brick Foundation: Loose bricks
Our photo (left shows severe water and frost damage to the corner of a brick building, probably from roof spillage at the end of a gutter that was periodically clogged.
To stabilize these bricks against further movement and possibly more serious foundation damage, a mason would probably repair the corner using a combination of reconstruction of the most-loose (or missing) bricks, and tuck pointing the remaining open mortar joints. |
Lintels: Water, Frost, & Rust Damage at Steel Lintels over Windows or Doors in Brick Walls
 Our photo (left) shows a rusting steel lintel in a brick wall. Luckily in this case, the worst rust damage and exfoliating (flaking rusting) steel is over the window itself (at the right side of the photo).
But in the 1980's we examined a New York City high rise building that had very expensive damage to nearly all of its brick exterior walls. Spalling and cracking had rather suddenly occurred at almost every window and door in the building not long after a new building maintenance superintendent had been employed.
The new maintenance supervisor had ordered that all window and door lintels should be caulked where he had observed a gap between the upper surface of the steel lintel and the brick above. Unfortunately that caulk job trapped water above the lintel where frost (short term rapid damage) caused severe brick spalling and cracking.
On other brick buildings whose windows and doors use steel lintels (to support bricks that must span over the opening), rusting steel lintels can also cause severe brick cracking and spalling. The lifting power of exfoliating steel (flaking rust) is very great.
Don't caulk between the bricks and the steel lintel that supports them on a masonry or masonry-veneer building.
On the other hand, it is usually ok to caulk on the underside of the lintel where it contacts the top of the window frame itself - our photo at left. |
A different steel window lintel problem is shown in our photo at left. It looks as if the window lintel is too short, extending less than an inch into the brick wall to the left of the window.
Especially if there is any evidence of cracking or brick wall movement, some careful inspection and further investigation would be needed in this area (perhaps there is a hidden window lintel or support not visible from the building exterior.
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Masonry & Brownstone Window & Door Lintel Damage & Repair
Our photo (left) shows spalling and cracking damage in brownstone lintels in a brick building. In addition to the risk of damage throughout the brick wall as this deterioration continues there is a potential hazard from falling masonry fragments.
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Methods of Repair of Brick Walls on Buildings, Structural vs Veneer
Repairs / Reinforcement of Structural Brick Walls: Connectors, Special Fasteners
The drawing at left, from Carson Dunlop Associates, shows how a structural brick wall may be reinforced laterally using a steel tie rod. In our photo of an antique building in Hudson, NY (below right) those three "stars" shown above the three windows of the second floor are probably functioning as giant "washers" securing a front-to-back anchor that secures the front wall of this structure against bulging or movement, possibly also securing the floor structure inside as you can see in the sketch at left.
Repair of Brick Veneer Walls
The brick veneer wall shown in our photos (below) was rebuilt after a partial collapse. You can see some of the original veneer bricks on the ground.
- A brick veneer wall that is extensively damaged, bulged, loose and collapsing will probably need to be removed and rebuilt.
- Other loose brick veneer walls that are not bulged or badly damaged but are poorly supported on the building structure can sometimes be repaired using special fasteners (e.g. Fero Engineered Masonry Connectors)that mount through mortar joints and connect to the building structure behind.
Take a look at Thermal Expansion Cracking in Brick for more about brick veneers and types of veneer damage.
Re-Pointing or Tuckpointing Brick Walls
Brick walls that have lost mortar from the joints between bricks or brick courses may be repaired by re-pointing or "tuck pointing", a procedure that cleans and then replaces mortar that has been lost from joints.
Our photo of a tuck-pointed structural brick wall (left) shows by the colored mortar that the mason attempted to match the color of older mortar in the wall.
The repairs done at below right look good. But a different tuck pointing repair job (in the upper left portion of the photo where we are pointing to a damaged brick) has not fared as well, possibly due to a poor mortar choice and frost damage.
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Definition of Tuck Pointing:
Tuck pointing is the filling in with fresh mortar of cut-out or defective mortar joints; in masonry this refers to the filling of joints in old (or damaged) masonry with fresh mortar. - Masonry Design Manual.
Working with a long narrow trowel whose width and shape are chosen to match the existing mortar joints, the mason first cleans the existing mortar joints of loose mortar and debris, then pushes fresh mortar into the open joints. The mortar joint in the tuck pointed wall should tooled to match the existing mortar joints, and any mortar that has spilled onto the brick faces themselves should be cleaned before the new joints have fully hardened.
Tuck pointing, which may be performed on both structural and veneer brick walls (as well as on other types of masonry) is performed for several reasons
- To stabilize the brick foundation or wall against movement. Our photo (left shows severe water and frost damage to the corner of a brick building, probably from roof spillage at the end of a gutter that was periodically clogged.
To stabilize these bricks against further movement and possibly more serious foundation damage, a mason would probably repair the corner using a combination of reconstruction of the most-loose (or missing) bricks, and tuck pointing the remaining open mortar joints.
- To stop water entry
- For cosmetic reasons
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The most common errors we see in brick wall tuckpointing include
- Use of the wrong mortar for tuck pointing brick wall repairs
- Mortar that is not matched closely in original color makes for a wall that is cosmetically unattractive. In our photo of a tuck-pointed brick wall (Wappingers Falls, New York) shows the effects of using a too-white mortar to "repair" the gable end wall of this home.
- Mortar that is not properly matched in hardness can cause serious spalling damage to a brick wall, especially in freezing climates. When the new mortar is too hard and too waterproof in comparison with the surrounding brick, moisture that penetrates the brick wall remains trapped behind the harder mortar. In freezing weather the expanding strength of ice pops off surfaces of the softer bricks, damaging the wall further.
- Failure to adequately clean the brick faces after new mortar is installed, leaving a "smear" of mortar on the brick surfaces - a cosmetic defect
- Failure to clean the brick joints before tuck pointing, resulting in short life for the tuckpointed "repair"
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Technical Reviewers & References
Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.
 Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd., 120 Carlton Street Suite 407, Toronto ON M5A 4K2. (416) 964-9415 1-800-268-7070 info@carsondunlop.com. The firm provides professional home inspection services & home inspection education & publications. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors. Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, for permission for InspectAPedia to use text excerpts from The Home Reference Book & illustrations from The Illustrated Home. Carson Dunlop Associates' provides:
- Commercial Building Inspection Courses - protocol ASTM Standard E 2018-08 for Property Condition Assessments
- Home Inspection Education Courses including home study & live classes at eleven colleges & universities.
- Home Inspection Education Home Study Courses - ASHI@Home Training 10-course program.
Special Offer: Carson Dunlop Associates offers InspectAPedia readers in the U.S.A. a 5% discount on these courses: Enter INSPECTAHITP in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
- The Home Reference Book, a reference & inspection report product for building owners & inspectors.
Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
- The Home Reference eBook, an electronic version for PCs, the iPad, iPhone, & Android smart phones.
Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference eBook purchased as a single order. Enter inspectaehrb in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- The Illustrated Home illustrates construction details and building components, a reference for owners & inspectors.
Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Illustrated Home purchased as a single order Enter INSPECTAILL in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- The Horizon Software System manages business operations,scheduling, & inspection report writing using Carson Dunlop's knowledge base & color images. The Horizon system runs on always-available cloud-based software for office computers, laptops, tablets, iPad, Android, & other smartphones.
- Thanks to Alan Carson, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for technical critique and some of the foundation inspection photographs cited in these articles
- Ambrico, American Brick Company, (Produces EZ-Wall® Engineered Thin Brick System), 12901 Stephens Road, Warren MI 48089Tel: 866-663-6898, Email: info@ambrico.com
- Brick Development Association, The Building Centre, 26 Store Street, London, WC1E 7BT, England, U.K., Tel: 020 7323 7030, Email: brick@brick.org.uk
- Brick Industry Association, 1850 Centennial Park Drive, Suite 301, Reston, VA 20191
Phone: 703.620.0010 Fax: 703.620.3928.
- Canada Masonry Centre, 360 Superior Blvd., Mississauga ON Canada L5T 2N7. Tel: (905) 564-6622. Offers the CMCA Textbook of Canadian Masonry.
- Fero Engineered Masonry Connectors & Accessories, FERO Corporation, 15305 - 117th Ave., Edmonton, Alberta T5M 3X4
Canada, Tel: (780) 455-5098. Fero produces brick veneer fasteners, rubble veneer fasteners, thin stone veneer connectors, and the FAST bracket.
- Masonry Design Manual, James E. Amrhein & Walter L. Dickey, Civil & Structural Engineers, Masonry Industry Advancement Committee, Masonry Institute of America, ASIN B0006XMFZE
Watch out: this manual may include opinions and recommendations that are obsolete or even very dangerous. For example p. I-4 expresses the opinion that "buckling is not a serious condition in masonry ..." contrary to the direct experience of masonry experts who report cases of catastrophic building collapses.
- Sanford Contracting, Inc., (produces thin masonry veneers and engineered brick panels), Sanford Contracting Inc.,
1400 Iron Horse Industrial Park, North Billerica, Massachusetts 01862-1612, Tel: 978-663-0200 Email: tsanford@SanfordContracting.com
- Tamlyn building products, Tom Tamlyn, President, 13623 Pike Rd., Stafford TX 77477, Tel: 800-334-1676.
- "Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
- Sal Alfano - Editor, Journal of Light Construction*
- Terry Carson - ASHI
- Mark Cramer - ASHI
- JD Grewell, ASHI
- Duncan Hannay - ASHI, P.E. *
- Bob Klewitz, M.S.C.E., P.E. - ASHI
- Ken Kruger, P.E., AIA - ASHI
- Aaron Kuertz aaronk@appliedtechnologies.com, with Applied Technologies regarding polyurethane foam sealant as other foundation crack repair product - 05/30/2007
- Bob Peterson, Magnum Piering - 800-771-7437 - FL*
- Arlene Puentes, ASHI, October Home Inspections - (845) 216-7833 - Kingston NY
- Greg Robi, Magnum Piering - 800-822-7437 - National*
- Dave Rathbun, P.E. - Geotech Engineering - 904-622-2424 FL*
- Ed Seaquist, P.E., SIE Assoc. - 301-269-1450 - National
- Dave Wickersheimer, P.E. R.A. - IL, professor, school of structures division, UIUC - University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Architecture. Professor Wickersheimer specializes in structural failure investigation and repair for wood and masonry construction. * Mr. Wickersheimer's engineering consulting service can be contacted at HDC Wickersheimer Engineering Services. (3/2010)
- *These reviewers have not returned comment 6/95
- FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS explains a simple method for determining how much bulge or lean is present in a foundation or wall,
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC helps determine if the foundation movement is ongoing,
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY discusses how we decide the severity of foundation damage and the urgency of further action.
FOUNDATION FAILURES by TYPE & MATERIAL describes the types of foundation damage, cracks, leaks, or other defects associated with each type of foundation material (concrete, brick, stone, concrete block, etc.).
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
 The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 25th Ed., 2012, is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume. Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
Or choose the The Home Reference eBook for PCs, Macs, Kindle, iPad, iPhone, or Android Smart Phones. Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference eBook purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAEHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
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- Avongard foundation crack progress chart for structural crack monitoring
- Basement Moisture Control, U.S. Department of Energy
- Building Failures, Diagnosis & Avoidance, 2d Ed., W.H. Ransom, E.& F. Spon, New York, 1987 ISBN 0-419-14270-3
- Building Pathology, Deterioration, Diagnostics, and Intervention, Samuel Y. Harris, P.E., AIA, Esq., ISBN 0-471-33172-4, John Wiley & Sons, 2001 [General building science-DF] ISBN-10: 0471331724
ISBN-13: 978-0471331728
- Building Pathology: Principles and Practice, David Watt, Wiley-Blackwell; 2 edition (March 7, 2008) ISBN-10: 1405161035 ISBN-13: 978-1405161039
- Construction Drawings and Details, Rosemary Kilmer
- Crawl Space Moisture Control, U.S. Department of Energy
- Diagnosing & Repairing House Structure Problems, Edgar O. Seaquist, McGraw Hill, 1980 ISBN 0-07-056013-7 (obsolete, incomplete, missing most diagnosis steps, but very good reading; out of print but used copies are available at Amazon.com, and reprints are available from some inspection tool suppliers). Ed Seaquist was among the first speakers invited to a series of educational conferences organized by D Friedman for ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors, where the topic of inspecting the in-service condition of building structures was first addressed.
- Domestic Building Surveys, Andrew R. Williams, Kindle book, Amazon.com
- Defects and Deterioration in Buildings: A Practical Guide to the Science and Technology of Material Failure, Barry Richardson, Spon Press; 2d Ed (2001), ISBN-10: 041925210X, ISBN-13: 978-0419252108. Quoting:
A professional reference designed to assist surveyors, engineers, architects and contractors in diagnosing existing problems and avoiding them in new buildings. Fully revised and updated, this edition, in new clearer format, covers developments in building defects, and problems such as sick building syndrome. Well liked for its mixture of theory and practice the new edition will complement Hinks and Cook's student textbook on defects at the practitioner level.
- Guide to Domestic Building Surveys, Jack Bower, Butterworth Architecture, London, 1988, ISBN 0-408-50000 X
- "Avoiding Foundation Failures," Robert Marshall, Journal of Light Construction, July, 1996 (Highly recommend this article-DF)
- "A Foundation for Unstable Soils," Harris Hyman, P.E., Journal of Light Construction, May 1995
- "Backfilling Basics," Buck Bartley, Journal of Light Construction, October 1994
- "Inspecting Block Foundations," Donald V. Cohen, P.E., ASHI Reporter, December 1998. This article in turn cites the Fine Homebuilding article noted below.
- "When Block Foundations go Bad," Fine Homebuilding, June/July 1998
- Historic Preservation Technology: A Primer, Robert A. Young, Wiley (March 21, 2008)
ISBN-10: 0471788368 ISBN-13: 978-0471788362
- Masonry structures: The Masonry House, Home Inspection of a Masonry Building & Systems, Stephen Showalter (director, actor), DVD, Quoting:
Movie Guide Experienced home inspectors and new home inspectors alike are sure to learn invaluable tips in this release designed to take viewers step-by-step through the home inspection process. In addition to being the former president of the National Association of Home Inspectors (NAHI), a longstanding member of the NAHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors (ASHI), and the Environmental Standard Organization (IESO), host Stephen Showalter has performed over 8000 building inspections - including environmental assessments. Now, the founder of a national home inspection school and inspection training curriculum shares his extensive experience in the inspection industry with everyday viewers looking to learn more about the process of evaluating homes. Topics covered in this release include: evaluation of masonry walls; detection of spalling from rebar failure; inspection of air conditioning systems; grounds and landscaping; electric systems and panel; plumbi
ng supply and distribution; plumbing fixtures; electric furnaces; appliances; evaluation of electric water heaters; and safety techniques. Jason Buchanan --Jason Buchanan, All Movie Review
- Masonry Design for Engineers and Architects, M. Hatzinikolas, Y. Korany, Canadian Masonry (2005), ISBN-10: 0978006100, ISBN-13: 978-0978006105
- Masonry Design Manual, James E. Amrhein & Walter L. Dickey, Civil & Structural Engineers, Masonry Industry Advancement Committee, Masonry Institute of America, ASIN B0006XMFZE
Watch out: this manual may include opinions and recommendations that are obsolete or even very dangerous. For example p. I-4 expresses the opinion that "buckling is not a serious condition in masonry ..." contrary to the direct experience of masonry experts who report cases of catastrophic building collapses.
- Masonry Structures: Behavior and Design, Robert G. Drysdale, Ahmid A. Hamid, Lawrie R. Baker, The Masonry Society; 2nd edition (1999), ISBN-10: 1929081014, ISBN-13: 978-1929081011
- Masonry, Engineered: Using the Canadian Code, J. I. Gainville, Cantext publications (1983), ASIN: B0007C37PG
- Masonry, Non-reinforced masonry design tables, Hans J. Schultz, National Concrete Producers Association and the Canadian Masonry Contractors Association (1976), ASIN: B0007C2LQM
- Moisture Control in Buildings, U.S. Department of Energy
- Moisture Control in Walls, U.S. Department of Energy
- "Vapor Barriers or Vapor Diffusion Retarders", U.S. DOE: how vapor barriers work, types of vapor diffusion barriers, installing vapor barrier
- Ventilation for energy efficient buildings, Purpose, Strategies, etc.,
- ...
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