How to Diagnose & Evaluate Diagonal Foundation Cracks

DIAGONAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - How to Evaluate Diagonal Foundation Cracks
- What are the typical causes of diagonal cracks in concrete foundations? What are the typical causes of diagonal step cracking in concrete block foundations? What is the impact of diagonal foundation cracks on a building's stability? Are repairs needed?
- Photographs of types of diagonal foundation cracks
Questions & Answers about how to diagnose & repair diagonal or step cracking in building foundations
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Diagonal foundation cracks: diagnosis & repair: this chapter of the Foundation Crack Bible discusses in detail the process of evaluating foundation diagonal foundation cracks, step cracks, and related signs of foundation movement or damage. Diagonal foundation cracks and movement are discussed by type and location of the cracks and their common causes. Foundation cracks, which are signs of foundation damage, can mean very different things depending on the material from which a foundation is made, the location, size, and shape of the foundation crack, and other site observations.

DIAGONAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - Diagonal & Step Crack Patterns in Building Foundations

This settlement crack probably occurred during initial footing settlement.

Notice that it is wider at the top than the bottom of the crack. This suggests that the footing to the left or right of the crack has moved downwards, with further downwards movement as we move further from the crack itself.

If this is new construction and the crack does not change in width the site conditions may have stabilized.

Typical Diagonal Crack Patterns in Building Foundations & Walls

These crack patterns form clues to help diagnose the probable cause of diagonal foundation cracks in buildings:

From corner towards adjacent opening, wider at top than bottom - often due to foundation settlement, expansive clay soil, frost damage, or damage from a shrub/tree close to the foundation wall.
Under a ground floor window, from sill to ground, sill bowed up - often due to foundation heave, clay soil, frost, shallow or absent footings
In the foundation wall anywhere, wider at bottom than top - settlement under building
At building corners in cold climates - frost heave, frost lensing, shallow footings, water problem, or insufficient backfill. In a typical raised ranch with a garage located in part of the basement, and with the garage entering at one end of a home, we often find step cracks in the front and rear foundation walls only on the garage-end of the home. These cracks may correspond to some related observations: (1) there may be less backfill against the front and rear foundation walls where a garage entry is located between them; (2) the reduction in backfill combined with an un-heated garage may expose these building corners to more frost damage; (3) if a building downspout or gutter defect spills roof drainage against the building wall, these forces will often combine to make more severe frost cracks appear on the garage-entry end of the home.
Vertical or diagonal crack which over a short time - settlement over sink holes- serious, open suddenly after rain; or ravines, mulch, fill, organic debris (later rots and settles).
Over window/door, straight or diagonal - loading/header defect - may appear as horizontal along top or bottom of header, vertical at ends of header (possibly due to differences in thermal expansion of different materials of header vs. wall) or vertical/diagonal at center of header (loading failure) or at corners (possible point-load failure)
Cracks in a poured concrete foundation which are diagonal or vertical and which are generally uniform in width, or which taper to an irregular hairline form, usually in fact a discontinuous crack in the hairline area, are usually shrinkage cracks and should not be ongoing nor of structural significance, though they may invite water entry through the wall.

Note that often at these foundation failures cracks are visible both outside and inside, but outside they may be covered by backfill.

For detecting evidence of sink holes in an area by visual inspection see Sink Holes: Can X-Ray Vision [Advanced Building & Building Site Inspection Techniques] Warn of Sink Holes? in Florida or elsewhere

Diagonal Cracks in Poured Concrete Foundations

Photograph of diagonal cracking in poured concrete

Concrete walls tend to display vertical cracks but settlement or frost heaving at a corner of a concrete wall can produce diagonal cracks or breaks in that location.

Steep diagonal cracks may also appear in concrete foundations due to unusual point loads that exceed the compressive strength of the concrete (maybe it was weak concrete not high loading), and we've seen steep diagonal cracks in poured concrete and other high-rise masonry buildings exposed to frost damage.

Steep diagonal shrinkage cracks: But in this photograph of a diagonal crack in a poured concrete foundation, we are almost certainly looking at a large shrinkage crack. Notice that discontinuity in the crack pattern?

A typical cause of diagonal shrinkage cracks in a concrete foundation wall is an improper mix or improper curing conditions at the time that the foundation wall was set in place or "poured".

Typical repairs for diagonal shrinkage cracks in a poured concrete foundation wall include the following steps

1. Assess and confirm the type of foundation cracking that has occurred so that we understand its cause - since knowing the cause of a crack helps understand the probability of future movement or damage - that is, confirm that we're looking at a shrinkage crack - something that occurred at or close to the time of construction, not a crack that occurred as a result of stresses, loads, or building movement.

2. Assess any impact of the diagonal foundation crack on the structure or its stability. For the diagonal shrinkage crack above it is unlikely that there has been any measurable impact on the rest of the building structure.

But because multiple forces or stresses can be at work at a building at the same time, a shrinkage cracked foundation might also show signs of settlement or actual movement. If this crack also showed signs of ongoing or cyclic building movement, such as due to frost pressure, thus converting it into a structural crack, we'd expect to see breakage across that discontinuous point in the crack shown in our photo, and we might also see lateral dislocation - that is, the foundation wall on the two sides of the crack would no longer be flush. And if there is ongoing settlement we'd expect the crack to be wider at its top than at its bottom (in most cases).

3. Seal the diagonal shrinkage crack against water leakage. If the crack is confirmed to be only due to concrete shrinkage, and to stop water leaks through the foundation, an expert might recommend sealing using epoxy injection. The appeal of that approach is that the cost is much less than a foundation waterproofing effort involving exterior excavation.

Watch out: all foundation waterproofing solutions should begin with an identification of the source of water entry and steps to correct it outside if at all possible. The most common sources of foundation leaks are improper handling of roof runoff or surface runoff - problems that can often be corrected without digging up the foundation. See WATER BARRIERS, EXTERIOR BUILDING and WATER ENTRY in BUILDINGS.

Diagonal Step Cracking in Concrete block or Brick Walls Caused by Vertical Movement - Structural Damage

Photograph of diagonal cracking in concrete block

Vertical movement in a concrete block or brick wall might appear as either vertical cracks but more often as step cracks in which the crack pattern follows the mortar joints between the masonry units in a stair stepping pattern.

In this photograph, major vertical dislocation, foundation settlement, has caused large step-cracking in the concrete block foundation wall. In addition to diagnosing and correcting the reason for this settlement or foundation movement, this section of wall will probably have to be rebuilt.

Where step cracks are present, if you draw an imaginary line at right angles (orthogonal) to the diagonal formed by the stair stepped cracking, the downwards direction of the line will generally point to the center of the point of downwards (or up and down) movement in the structure.

But unfortunately even this "rule" has exceptions. In Florida we observed a concrete block home with step cracking high in some of its walls. The cracks were traced to settlement at the other end of the building which was responding to soil subsidence over a sinkhole.

Typical repairs for diagonal shrinkage cracks in a concrete block foundation wall include the following steps

1. Assess and confirm the type of foundation cracking that has occurred in the block foundation so that we understand its cause - since knowing the cause of a crack helps understand the probability of future movement or damage. For the foundation damage shown in our photo above we suspect severe frost pressure on the wall combined with footing heaving or settlement, but we won't be confident about that analysis before inspecting the rest of the building and the building exterior and site.

2. Assess any impact of the diagonal foundation crack on the structure or its stability. For the concrete block foundation diagonal crack above there is no question that the crack involves significant structural damage, and it's likely that an expert on site will recommend reconstruction of the wall.

But before supporting the structure, removing the wall, and rebuilding this section of the foundation, it makes sense to form a complete picture of the sources of movement and damage. For example, the foundation footings may have been set on poorly prepared soil or on fill, there may be roof or surface runoff problems to correct, and we may also need to install a working foundation drainage system.

3. Repair (or rebuild) the foundation. A crack such as the block wall damage shown above should not simply be sealed with caulk or epoxy. Repairs are needed.

Watch out: even though this wall will probably be rebuilt, as for the concrete foundation discussed earlier, all foundation waterproofing solutions should begin with an identification of the source of water entry and steps to correct it outside if at all possible. The most common sources of foundation leaks are improper handling of roof runoff or surface runoff - problems that can often be corrected without digging up the foundation. See WATER BARRIERS, EXTERIOR BUILDING and WATER ENTRY in BUILDINGS.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about diagonal foundation cracks or step cracking in block foundations

Question: How can we distinguish a diagonal structural crack from a cold pour joint in a poured concrete foundation wall?

I am hoping you can help me out here, the home inspector was not very helpful to me for this one. I have attached an image of the foundation cracks in the basement, I am wondering if you can help me identify if there is any structural problems. The outside of the wall is backfill. Thank you so much for your help! - C.C. 9/5/12

Photograph of contraditory diagonal "cracks" in a poured concrete foundation wall (C) InspectAPedia & C.C.

Reply: Unfortunately your photos were quite blurry and small, making any detailed examination impossible. I cannot see if you are actually showing photos of actual foundation cracking (such as due to settlement or movement) or if in fact we are looking at foundation wall leak stains along cold pour joints (COLD POUR JOINTS, CONCRETE).

In one of your photos the apparent "cracks" look like a Vee shape that would be unusual (not impossible) in foundation settlement but would be common in a cold pour joint. Were there similar marks on other foundation walls? Perhaps cold pour joints that were not leaky so were less obvious? If on the other hand you saw actual separation or broken concrete - then it's a crack not a cold pour joint.

I also see what looks like leak stains along some of these cracks - or joints. Water leakage through a poured concrete foundation wall can indeed occur at all types of cracks and also occurs at some cold pour joints as well as occasionally at form ties.

I am also disappointed in your home inspector - s/he was paid a fee to inspect the home and owes you a useful explanation of what was observed. If the inspector doesn't know - that's fine, and honest - but then unless the inspector is confident that these cracks and stains are meaningless (an opinion I'd doubt as there is evidence of leakage), I'd have expected the inspector to suggest that more expert inspection and diagnosis were appropriate.

Reader Follow up:

Thank you SO much for your detailed response. They are actual cracks, and I believe there are some white residue left on the walls (possibly efflorescence ?) Also, the left side of the wall seems like it's a little bent outwards and the right side is bent inwards (think concave and convex). Is that signs of bulging?

Right now I am asking the inspector to give me full resolution photos of that particular area of the house. (he declined to give me all full size photos for the entire inspection).

Also, because this is sold conditionally to me, I can walk away with no loss. The seller of this house has gotten an injection crack fix quotation ($2500) as well as a structural engineer to report on the structural stability of the house.

I guess at the end of the day, the big question is whether this will be:
1. good structurally? (ie the house won't collapse on me)
2. if the cracks are fixed by injection, will it indeed waterproof the basement?

Thanks again for your help here. I am grateful for the information on your website. - C.C.

Reply:

OK so when we know there are cracks in a foundation wall we need to know:

cause
impact on structure
history & probability of continuing cracking, damage, movement
proper repair steps

FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses evaluating foundation damage by examining concrete crack size, shape, pattern, and location. If inspection confirms that the foundation wall is actually leaning or bulging, particularly confirming that it was not built in that position, then movement has occurred and an accurate diagnosis is important in deciding what repair work, if any, is needed.

Crack injection into a concrete foundation wall principally addresses water or air leaks, not structural issues in residential applications. (Indeed there are some cases in which epoxies are used also for structural repairs). The risk is that you end up having to do a foundation or footing repair. Far far more than just the cost to seal up cracks.

It's not that a sudden calamitous collapse is imminent - but rather that there is an ongoing settlement problem (bad footings, bad site work, built on fill, something else) that ultimately means foundation repair.

Take a look at the crack evaluation articles at our site if you haven't already done so, keep me posted, send along sharper photos, and let me know other diagnostic data (site properties, cracks present or absent on other walls, etc)

Sharp photos of these foundation cracks and patterns would be helpful and would permit some comment, but they are never a substitute for an onsite inspection by an expert. In my experience, the onsite expert almost always finds important additional information that simply was not apparent to a homeowner nor to others.

Reader Follow-up - Nine Diagnostic Photos of Diagonal Foundation "Cracks" that may be cold pour joints

Here are some more pictures. Hopefully you can offer your experience and shed some light on the situation

Reply:

In this photo I notice what a diagonal or sloped concrete "patch" along the joint between the bottom of the foundation wall and the floor - suggesting that someone has been trying to deal with a problem of foundation leakage and basement water entry.

It would be useful to marry this observation with what your home inspector noticed outside the building regarding the condition of the roof drainage system, gutters and downspouts, as well as any surface runoff or grading issues around the home.

Zooming in on the image [Click this or any image to see an enlarged version] these begin to look more like leaky cold pour joints but we can't yet reconcile that opinion with your suspected observation of foundation lean or bulge.

We have some experts among InspectAPedia readers, including some structural engineers familiar with foundation problems - and invite further comments.

In the photos below (images were lab-enhanced from as-received) water leak stains are plain at form ties (photo below left, left side), at the floor/wall juncture, and at the diagonal cracks.

Your two photos below offer closer views that look to me like cold pour joints that were leaking.

Your last two photos (below) illustrate an unusual number of unusually close together diagonal foundation crack patterns, nearly all of which have also been leaking.

Even where I find cold pour joints in foundation walls, the only time I see so many such marks so close together is in a poured concrete foundation that was mixed by hand or set in place using many small-quantity concrete pours with enough time delay between each successive pour that there was poor bonding between them. More diagnostic examples are at COLD POUR JOINTS, CONCRETE.

Certainly the diagonals would appear to "contradict" one another in their indications of directions of foundation movement or settlement- a further argument for cold pour joints and either some very unusual site conditions during construction or amateur workmanship.

You didn't say where this home is located nor if it's in an earthquake zone. But while we see other close-set structural cracks in areas of earthquake damage, it would be unusual for a severely earthquake-damaged building to show vertical and diagonal foundation cracks with absolutely no lateral movement or dislocation.

I would like to examine some really sharp close-up photos of some of those crack areas in order to look for classic cold pour joint details in comparison with cracks due to shrinkage, loading, structural movement, but I SPECULATE from the crack pattern, location, even the contradicting directions of cracks in nearby wall sections, that these are leaky cold pour joints.

These walls look as if an amateur concrete mason built the foundation out of a large number of small pours.

See if you can find out the age of the house, who built it, and who did the foundation work, and if neighboring buildings by the same contractor built at the same time have similar foundation leaks and damage. .

We've either got cold pour joints or a unique heave/settlement/absence of reinforcement problem that is unusual.

I'd be more confident about my guess if I could look closely at the concrete around those cracks - you can do that. First take a look at some of my cold pour joint photos so you know what you are looking for. IF the concrete is smooth, uniform, on both sides of the crack, then it's a break or crack; if the concrete is rough, funny looking along the area of cracking, you may be able to spot where two successive pours of concrete met one another after enough time had elapsed between the first and second pour such that there was little mixing, blending, adhesion between the two pours.

If they are cold pour joints with no other movement nor lateral dislocation, then this is not a structural nor settlement hazard it's a leak problem
If there is weird foundation settlement or earthquake damage, then the foundation is a mess and needs expert diagnosis and assessment.
Tell me the age and location of the home and what else you can about its history, including the condition of roof and site drainage, frost exposure?
Tell me if you can find out by asking neighbors if there are similar problems on other homes by the same builder.

Reader Follow-Up:

The house is only 8 years old. The grading outside is nothing too unusual. The roof has proper drainage as well. I went to a friends house who is in the same row and he doesn't have that problem. do you think a crack fix from outside and a vapor barrier outside of the foundation will prevent leakage for good? When i told people about my worries, That solution was what I have been told by multiple people. -C.C.

Reply:

C.C., before choosing a "repair" we must be confident that we understand the problem - otherwise it's likely to be money wasted.

Fixing leaks from outside the building is usually the best approach but if the problem is not just a roof gutter/downspout or surface runoff problem, that is, if the proposal involves excavating the foundation to install a waterproofing system or new footing drains, that approach will also the most expensive; that's why we prefer to start fixing foundation leakage by finding and fixing sources of outside leaks. Start by looking at the roof drainage system and surface runoff/grading.

At WATER ENTRY in BUILDINGS we provide a series of articles detailing approaches to basement waterproofing, starting with the simple, inexpensive basics but also including the use of excavation, geotextiles, etc.

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Technical Reviewers & References

Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.

"Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
Mark Cramer Inspection Services Mark Cramer, Tampa Florida, Mr. Cramer is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors and is a Florida home inspector and home inspection educator. Mr. Cramer serves on the ASHI Home Inspection Standards. Contact Mark Cramer at: 727-595-4211 mark@BestTampaInspector.com
John Cranor is an ASHI member and a home inspector (The House Whisperer) is located in Glen Allen, VA 23060. He is also a contributor to InspectApedia.com in several technical areas such as plumbing and appliances (dryer vents). Contact Mr. Cranor at 804-747-7747 or by Email: johncranor@verizon.net
Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd., 120 Carlton Street Suite 407, Toronto ON M5A 4K2. (416) 964-9415 1-800-268-7070 info@carsondunlop.com. The firm provides professional home inspection services & home inspection education & publications. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors. Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, for permission for InspectAPedia to use text excerpts from The Home Reference Book & illustrations from The Illustrated Home. Carson Dunlop Associates' provides:
- Commercial Building Inspection Courses - protocol ASTM Standard E 2018-08 for Property Condition Assessments
- Home Inspection Education Courses including home study & live classes at eleven colleges & universities.
- Home Inspection Education Home Study Courses - ASHI@Home Training 10-course program.
  Special Offer: Carson Dunlop Associates offers InspectAPedia readers in the U.S.A. a 5% discount on these courses: Enter INSPECTAHITP in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
- The Home Reference Book, a reference & inspection report product for building owners & inspectors.
  Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
- The Home Reference eBook, an electronic version for PCs, the iPad, iPhone, & Android smart phones.
  Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference eBook purchased as a single order. Enter inspectaehrb in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- The Illustrated Home illustrates construction details and building components, a reference for owners & inspectors.
  Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Illustrated Home purchased as a single order Enter INSPECTAILL in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- The Horizon Software System manages business operations,scheduling, & inspection report writing using Carson Dunlop's knowledge base & color images. The Horizon system runs on always-available cloud-based software for office computers, laptops, tablets, iPad, Android, & other smartphones.
"Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
Sal Alfano - Editor, Journal of Light Construction*
Thanks to Alan Carson, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for technical critique and some of the foundation inspection photographs cited in these articles
Terry Carson - ASHI
Mark Cramer - ASHI
JD Grewell, ASHI
Duncan Hannay - ASHI, P.E. *
Bob Klewitz, M.S.C.E., P.E. - ASHI
Ken Kruger, P.E., AIA - ASHI
Aaron Kuertz aaronk@appliedtechnologies.com, with Applied Technologies regarding polyurethane foam sealant as other foundation crack repair product - 05/30/2007
Bob Peterson, Magnum Piering - 800-771-7437 - FL*
Arlene Puentes, ASHI, October Home Inspections - (845) 216-7833 - Kingston NY
Greg Robi, Magnum Piering - 800-822-7437 - National*
Dave Rathbun, P.E. - Geotech Engineering - 904-622-2424 FL*
Ed Seaquist, P.E., SIE Assoc. - 301-269-1450 - National
Dave Wickersheimer, P.E. R.A. - IL, professor, school of structures division, UIUC - University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Architecture. Professor Wickersheimer specializes in structural failure investigation and repair for wood and masonry construction. * Mr. Wickersheimer's engineering consulting service can be contacted at HDC Wickersheimer Engineering Services. (3/2010)
*These reviewers have not returned comment 6/95
Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction, by Steven Bliss. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ISBN-10: 0471648361, ISBN-13: 978-0471648369, Hardcover: 320 pages, available from Amazon.com and also Wiley.com. See our book review of this publication.
Decks and Porches, the JLC Guide to, Best Practices for Outdoor Spaces, Steve Bliss (Editor), The Journal of Light Construction, Williston VT, 2010 ISBN 10: 1-928580-42-4, ISBN 13: 978-1-928580-42-3, available from Amazon.com
The Journal of Light Construction has generously given reprint permission to InspectAPedia.com for certain articles found at this website. All rights and contents to those materials are ©Journal of Light Construction and may not be reproduced in any form.
Appliances and Home Electronics, - energy savings, U.S. Department of Energy
Avongard foundation crack progress chart for structural crack monitoring
Building Pathology, Deterioration, Diagnostics, and Intervention, Samuel Y. Harris, P.E., AIA, Esq., ISBN 0-471-33172-4, John Wiley & Sons, 2001 [General building science-DF] ISBN-10: 0471331724 ISBN-13: 978-0471331728
Building Pathology: Principles and Practice, David Watt, Wiley-Blackwell; 2 edition (March 7, 2008) ISBN-10: 1405161035 ISBN-13: 978-1405161039
Construction Drawings and Details, Rosemary Kilmer
Diagnosing & Repairing House Structure Problems, Edgar O. Seaquist, McGraw Hill, 1980 ISBN 0-07-056013-7 (obsolete, incomplete, missing most diagnosis steps, but very good reading; out of print but used copies are available at Amazon.com, and reprints are available from some inspection tool suppliers). Ed Seaquist was among the first speakers invited to a series of educational conferences organized by D Friedman for ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors, where the topic of inspecting the in-service condition of building structures was first addressed.
Design of Wood Structures - ASD, Donald E. Breyer, Kenneth Fridley, Kelly Cobeen, David Pollock, McGraw Hill, 2003, ISBN-10: 0071379320, ISBN-13: 978-0071379328
This book is an update of a long-established text dating from at least 1988 (DJF); Quoting:
This book is gives a good grasp of seismic design for wood structures. Many of the examples especially near the end are good practice for the California PE Special Seismic Exam design questions. It gives a good grasp of how seismic forces move through a building and how to calculate those forces at various locations. THE CLASSIC TEXT ON WOOD DESIGN UPDATED TO INCLUDE THE LATEST CODES AND DATA. Reflects the most recent provisions of the 2003 International Building Code and 2001 National Design Specification for Wood Construction. Continuing the sterling standard set by earlier editions, this indispensable reference clearly explains the best wood design techniques for the safe handling of gravity and lateral loads. Carefully revised and updated to include the new 2003 International Building Code, ASCE 7-02 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, the 2001 National Design Specification for Wood Construction, and the most recent Allowable Stress Design.
Building Failures, Diagnosis & Avoidance, 2d Ed., W.H. Ransom, E.& F. Spon, New York, 1987 ISBN 0-419-14270-3
Domestic Building Surveys, Andrew R. Williams, Kindle book, Amazon.com
Defects and Deterioration in Buildings: A Practical Guide to the Science and Technology of Material Failure, Barry Richardson, Spon Press; 2d Ed (2001), ISBN-10: 041925210X, ISBN-13: 978-0419252108. Quoting:
A professional reference designed to assist surveyors, engineers, architects and contractors in diagnosing existing problems and avoiding them in new buildings. Fully revised and updated, this edition, in new clearer format, covers developments in building defects, and problems such as sick building syndrome. Well liked for its mixture of theory and practice the new edition will complement Hinks and Cook's student textbook on defects at the practitioner level.
Guide to Domestic Building Surveys, Jack Bower, Butterworth Architecture, London, 1988, ISBN 0-408-50000 X
"Avoiding Foundation Failures," Robert Marshall, Journal of Light Construction, July, 1996 (Highly recommend this article-DF)
"A Foundation for Unstable Soils," Harris Hyman, P.E., Journal of Light Construction, May 1995
"Backfilling Basics," Buck Bartley, Journal of Light Construction, October 1994
"Inspecting Block Foundations," Donald V. Cohen, P.E., ASHI Reporter, December 1998. This article in turn cites the Fine Homebuilding article noted below.
"When Block Foundations go Bad," Fine Homebuilding, June/July 1998
Quality Standards for the Professional Remodeler, N.U. Ahmed, # Home Builder Pr (February 1991), ISBN-10: 0867183594, ISBN-13: 978-0867183597
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DIAGONAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - Diagonal & Step Crack Patterns in Building Foundations

Typical Diagonal Crack Patterns in Building Foundations & Walls

Diagonal Cracks in Poured Concrete Foundations

Typical repairs for diagonal shrinkage cracks in a poured concrete foundation wall include the following steps

Diagonal Step Cracking in Concrete block or Brick Walls Caused by Vertical Movement - Structural Damage

Typical repairs for diagonal shrinkage cracks in a concrete block foundation wall include the following steps

Further Reading

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about diagonal foundation cracks or step cracking in block foundations

Question: How can we distinguish a diagonal structural crack from a cold pour joint in a poured concrete foundation wall?

Reader Follow up:

Reply:

Reader Follow-up - Nine Diagnostic Photos of Diagonal Foundation "Cracks" that may be cold pour joints

Reply:

Reader Follow-Up:

Reply:

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Technical Reviewers & References

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

How to Diagnose & Evaluate Diagonal Foundation Cracks