How to Detect, Diagnose, Evaluate & Repair Foundation Movement
Buckles, Bulges, Bows, Cracks, Creep, Impact, Leaning or Settlement Damage

How to Evaluate and Diagnose Foundation Movement by Type & Location of Cracks, Bends, Leans, or Shift in Foundation Components
- How to distinguish foundation bulging from foundation leaning
- Different causes of foundation leaning, bulging, cracking
- How to recognize foundation impact damage
- How to recognize foundation creep or footing movement
Questions & Answers about diagnosing different types of foundation movement: settlement, heaving, leaning, bulging, bowing, vertical or horizontal shifting.
References

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Types of foundation movement: this article discusses how to evaluate and diagnose foundation cracks and movement classified by the type of movement that is occurring: horizontal movement, vertical movement, bulging or bowing walls, leaning or tipping foundation walls, and other forms of foundation settlement or heaving. This chapter of the "Foundation Crack Bible" discusses in detail the recognition of different types and causes of building foundation movement and foundation damage. We distinguish among vertical movement, horizontal movement, leaning, tipping, bending, differential and uniform settlement, earthquake and storm damage, and other foundation damage patterns.

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Guide to Types of Building Foundation Movement as an Aid to Foundation Damage Diagnosis & Repair

Sketch of types of foundation settlement (C) Carson Dunlop

This article series describes how to recognize and diagnose various types of foundation failure or damage, such as foundation cracks, masonry foundation crack patterns, and moving, leaning, bulging, or bowing building foundation walls. To be used properly, this information must be combined with specific on-site observations at the particular building in order to form a reliable opinion about the condition of that building's foundation.

Anyone having concern regarding the structural stability, safety, or damage of a building, foundation or other components, should consult a qualified expert. Photographs of types of foundation cracks and other foundation damage: we have a large library of photographs which we're in process of adding to this document. Pending completion of that work, contact the author if assistance is required.

Detailed articles on types of foundation movement are listed just below. The sketch is courtesy Carson Dunlop Associates

Strategy for Building Foundation or Floor or Slab Crack, Damage, or Movement Assessment

To understand the cause, effect, and remedy for all types of building foundation or masonry wall damage or movement we have categorized foundation damage into these broad categories:

FOUNDATION FAILURES by MOVEMENT TYPE: is the movement active or not, how is the foundation moving: bulging, leaning, settling, etc. ?
FOUNDATION FAILURES by TYPE & MATERIAL: how does damage show up in different types of foundation material & what are the implications for collapse risk or repair need?
FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION, what is the severity of foundation damage, what is its effect on the stability of the structure, and how urgently are foundation repairs needed?
FOUNDATION REPAIR METHODS discusses alternative ways to fix a damaged foundation or floor slab crack or movement

Vertical Movement in Foundations & Walls

Vertical movement in foundations, in the most general cases, is caused by downwards movement of the wall or wall footings such as when a wall footing sinks in soft soil, or by an up and down movement of the wall or wall footings such as when a wall is disturbed by frost in a freezing climate or by expansive clay soils which expand or shrink as their water content increases or decreases.

We discuss types of vertical foundation movement in detail at VERTICAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS. Here are some classes of vertical foundation or building wall movement which we illustrate and discuss in more detail below:

Differential foundation settlement: one portion of a building foundation or wall moves up or down separately from its neighbor. See Differential vs. Uniform Settlement Cracks. Differential settlement will damage the foundation or wall by producing (usually vertical, possibly diagonal or stair stepped) cracks and other symptoms of wall movement. The large foundation crack in this poured concrete wall was caused by differential settlement in a new foundation wall. All of this movement occurred during the first 13 months after the home was built.
Uniform building settlement: an entire building moves up or down together, causing little or no foundation cracking or damage, though there could be important damage to mechanical connections to the building and even dangerous gas line leaks.
Building tipping or leaning: an entire building tips or leans out of level. For a detailed discussion of the diagnosis of specific crack patterns caused by wall bulging and leaning in masonry foundations, and see FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS
Vertical shrinkage cracks in foundation walls: If a vertical crack is fairly uniform in width we pose that it was produced either by a non-sloping vertical settlement of one section of the footing or foundation wall, or the crack was produced by shrinkage (in some wall materials like concrete) not by vertical movement at all. We discuss the types of crack or movement patterns produced by shrinkage, expansion, and settlement further at SHRINKAGE vs EXPANSION vs SETTLEMENT.
Earthquake or Storm Damage to Buildings: can cause complex building movement in multiple directions, as we illustrate at Foundation Movement due to Earthquake.

Horizontal Movement in Foundations & Masonry Building Walls

Horizontal movement in building foundations or walls is generally caused by an external lateral or "sideways" force applied to some portion of the wall. Depending on the construction materials used and the strength of a foundation wall, a force applied to the wall can cause it to move in any of several ways which we discuss in detail at HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS.

Bulging foundation wall movement: the wall may bend or "bulge", tending to bulge away from the force (usually inwards into the building from earth, water, or frost pressure), with the greatest amount of inwards movement at or near the point of greatest pressure or force being applied.
Leaning foundation wall movement: the wall may lean away from the force being applied (usually into the building from the same forces listed above).
Shifting or creeping foundation wall movement: a foundation wall, or portions of it, may remain close to vertical, without leaning or bulging, but forces applied to the wall may cause the entire wall (or a portion of it) to move horizontally. We see horizontal shift or creep occurring in several cases:
Complex foundation wall movement: most of the drawings we see at seminars on foundation damage or used by companies offering foundation repair products are clear and helpful for understanding the concept of foundation damage and movement, but often they do not describe what we actually find in the field.

Combinations of Foundation Wall Movement, Horizontal & Vertical Crack Patterns Occurring Together

We discuss the inspection and analysis of foundation damage which shows a combination of different movement directions, forces, or crack patterns in detail at COMBINATIONS OF FOUNDATION MOVEMENT including the following examples of combination foundation damage:

Step cracks combined with bulging walls
Combinations of foundation wall movement during foundation collapse
Combinations of foundation wall movement due to earthquake, flood, impact, or explosion
Step cracks combined with leaning foundation walls

How to distinguish between a "bulged" foundation wall and a "leaning" foundation wall, and why we care

Understanding the location and pattern of foundation wall cracking or movement may help us diagnose its cause and thus may help us understand what actions are needed to stop further foundation movement. We discuss how and why we make this distinction between bulging and leaning foundations in detail at BULGED vs. LEANING FOUNDATIONS.

Even a concrete wall which is bulged is likely to be cracked horizontally, though perhaps not in such a straight line.

But a bulged reinforced concrete wall would be very rare unless perhaps the concrete wall bulged, or its forms bulged, during the time that the concrete was being poured and was still wet. It's more likely that a reinforced concrete wall will be caused to lean or to shift horizontally while a masonry unit wall or stone wall is likely to be bulged and cracked by the same external forces.

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Technical Reviewers & References

Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.

"Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
Sal Alfano - Editor, Journal of Light Construction*
Thanks to Alan Carson, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for technical critique and some of the foundation inspection photographs cited in these articles.
Mark Cramer Inspection Services Mark Cramer, Tampa Florida, Mr. Cramer is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors and is a Florida home inspector and home inspection educator. Mr. Cramer serves on the ASHI Home Inspection Standards. Contact Mark Cramer at: 727-595-4211 mark@BestTampaInspector.com
John Cranor is an ASHI member and a home inspector (The House Whisperer) is located in Glen Allen, VA 23060. He is also a contributor to InspectApedia.com in several technical areas such as plumbing and appliances (dryer vents). Contact Mr. Cranor at 804-747-7747 or by Email: johncranor@verizon.net
Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd., 120 Carlton Street Suite 407, Toronto ON M5A 4K2. (416) 964-9415 1-800-268-7070 info@carsondunlop.com. The firm provides professional home inspection services & home inspection education & publications. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors. Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, for permission for InspectAPedia to use text excerpts from The Home Reference Book & illustrations from The Illustrated Home. Carson Dunlop Associates' provides:
- Commercial Building Inspection Courses - protocol ASTM Standard E 2018-08 for Property Condition Assessments
- Home Inspection Education Courses including home study & live classes at eleven colleges & universities.
- Home Inspection Education Home Study Courses - ASHI@Home Training 10-course program.
  Special Offer: Carson Dunlop Associates offers InspectAPedia readers in the U.S.A. a 5% discount on these courses: Enter INSPECTAHITP in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
- The Home Reference Book, a reference & inspection report product for building owners & inspectors.
  Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
- The Home Reference eBook, an electronic version for PCs, the iPad, iPhone, & Android smart phones.
  Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference eBook purchased as a single order. Enter inspectaehrb in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- The Illustrated Home illustrates construction details and building components, a reference for owners & inspectors.
  Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Illustrated Home purchased as a single order Enter INSPECTAILL in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- The Horizon Software System manages business operations,scheduling, & inspection report writing using Carson Dunlop's knowledge base & color images. The Horizon system runs on always-available cloud-based software for office computers, laptops, tablets, iPad, Android, & other smartphones.
A.B. Chance foundation repair systems, helical piers, foundation repairs www.abchance.com
Dwyer of Florida, supplier of Helical Piles, foundation repair, and concrete restoration in Florida, exclusive dealer for Magnum piering. This company provides helical piles, foundation settlement repair, concrete restoration, shotcrete, pressure grouting, and slabjacking for residential and commercial buildings. 1-866-900-PIER www.dwyerflorida.com
Terry Carson - ASHI
Mark Cramer - ASHI
JD Grewell, ASHI
Duncan Hannay - ASHI, P.E. *
Bob Klewitz, M.S.C.E., P.E. - ASHI
Ken Kruger, P.E., AIA - ASHI
Aaron Kuertz aaronk@appliedtechnologies.com, with Applied Technologies regarding polyurethane foam sealant as other foundation crack repair product - 05/30/2007
Bob Peterson, Magnum Piering - 800-771-7437 - FL*
Arlene Puentes, ASHI, October Home Inspections - (845) 216-7833 - Kingston NY
Greg Robi, Magnum Piering - 800-822-7437 - National*
Dave Rathbun, P.E. - Geotech Engineering - 904-622-2424 FL*
Ed Seaquist, P.E., SIE Assoc. - 301-269-1450 - National
Dave Wickersheimer, P.E. R.A. - IL, professor, school of structures division, UIUC - University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Architecture. Professor Wickersheimer specializes in structural failure investigation and repair for wood and masonry construction. * Mr. Wickersheimer's engineering consulting service can be contacted at HDC Wickersheimer Engineering Services. (3/2010)
*These reviewers have not returned comment 6/95

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.

The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 25th Ed., 2012, is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume. Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.

Or choose the The Home Reference eBook for PCs, Macs, Kindle, iPad, iPhone, or Android Smart Phones. Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference eBook purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAEHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.

Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction, by Steven Bliss. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ISBN-10: 0471648361, ISBN-13: 978-0471648369, Hardcover: 320 pages, available from Amazon.com and also Wiley.com. See our book review of this publication.
Decks and Porches, the JLC Guide to, Best Practices for Outdoor Spaces, Steve Bliss (Editor), The Journal of Light Construction, Williston VT, 2010 ISBN 10: 1-928580-42-4, ISBN 13: 978-1-928580-42-3, available from Amazon.com
The Journal of Light Construction has generously given reprint permission to InspectAPedia.com for certain articles found at this website. All rights and contents to those materials are ©Journal of Light Construction and may not be reproduced in any form.
Appliances and Home Electronics, - energy savings, U.S. Department of Energy
Avongard foundation crack progress chart for structural crack monitoring
Basement Moisture Control, U.S. Department of Energy
Building Pathology, Deterioration, Diagnostics, and Intervention, Samuel Y. Harris, P.E., AIA, Esq., ISBN 0-471-33172-4, John Wiley & Sons, 2001 [General building science-DF] ISBN-10: 0471331724 ISBN-13: 978-0471331728
Building Pathology: Principles and Practice, David Watt, Wiley-Blackwell; 2 edition (March 7, 2008) ISBN-10: 1405161035 ISBN-13: 978-1405161039
The Circular Staircase, Mary Roberts Rinehart
Construction Drawings and Details, Rosemary Kilmer
Crawl Space Moisture Control, U.S. Department of Energy
Diagnosing & Repairing House Structure Problems, Edgar O. Seaquist, McGraw Hill, 1980 ISBN 0-07-056013-7 (obsolete, incomplete, missing most diagnosis steps, but very good reading; out of print but used copies are available at Amazon.com, and reprints are available from some inspection tool suppliers). Ed Seaquist was among the first speakers invited to a series of educational conferences organized by D Friedman for ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors, where the topic of inspecting the in-service condition of building structures was first addressed.
Design of Wood Structures - ASD, Donald E. Breyer, Kenneth Fridley, Kelly Cobeen, David Pollock, McGraw Hill, 2003, ISBN-10: 0071379320, ISBN-13: 978-0071379328
This book is an update of a long-established text dating from at least 1988 (DJF); Quoting:
This book is gives a good grasp of seismic design for wood structures. Many of the examples especially near the end are good practice for the California PE Special Seismic Exam design questions. It gives a good grasp of how seismic forces move through a building and how to calculate those forces at various locations. THE CLASSIC TEXT ON WOOD DESIGN UPDATED TO INCLUDE THE LATEST CODES AND DATA. Reflects the most recent provisions of the 2003 International Building Code and 2001 National Design Specification for Wood Construction. Continuing the sterling standard set by earlier editions, this indispensable reference clearly explains the best wood design techniques for the safe handling of gravity and lateral loads. Carefully revised and updated to include the new 2003 International Building Code, ASCE 7-02 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, the 2001 National Design Specification for Wood Construction, and the most recent Allowable Stress Design.
Building Failures, Diagnosis & Avoidance, 2d Ed., W.H. Ransom, E.& F. Spon, New York, 1987 ISBN 0-419-14270-3
Domestic Building Surveys, Andrew R. Williams, Kindle book, Amazon.com
Defects and Deterioration in Buildings: A Practical Guide to the Science and Technology of Material Failure, Barry Richardson, Spon Press; 2d Ed (2001), ISBN-10: 041925210X, ISBN-13: 978-0419252108. Quoting:
A professional reference designed to assist surveyors, engineers, architects and contractors in diagnosing existing problems and avoiding them in new buildings. Fully revised and updated, this edition, in new clearer format, covers developments in building defects, and problems such as sick building syndrome. Well liked for its mixture of theory and practice the new edition will complement Hinks and Cook's student textbook on defects at the practitioner level.
Guide to Domestic Building Surveys, Jack Bower, Butterworth Architecture, London, 1988, ISBN 0-408-50000 X
"Avoiding Foundation Failures," Robert Marshall, Journal of Light Construction, July, 1996 (Highly recommend this article-DF)
"A Foundation for Unstable Soils," Harris Hyman, P.E., Journal of Light Construction, May 1995
"Backfilling Basics," Buck Bartley, Journal of Light Construction, October 1994
"Inspecting Block Foundations," Donald V. Cohen, P.E., ASHI Reporter, December 1998. This article in turn cites the Fine Homebuilding article noted below.
"When Block Foundations go Bad," Fine Homebuilding, June/July 1998
Energy Recover Ventilation Systems for Buildings, U.S. Department of Energy
Energy Savings Methods: Whole House Systems Approach, U.S. Department of Energy
Historic Preservation Technology: A Primer, Robert A. Young, Wiley (March 21, 2008) ISBN-10: 0471788368 ISBN-13: 978-0471788362
Log Homes: Minimizing Air Leakage in Log Homes, U.S. Department of Energy
Log Homes: Controlling Moisture in Log Homes, U.S. Department of Energy
Log Homes: Log Home Design, U.S. Department of Energy
Moisture Control in Buildings, U.S. Department of Energy
Moisture Control in Walls, U.S. Department of Energy
Quality Standards for the Professional Remodeling Industry, National Association of Home Builders Remodelers Council, NAHB Research Foundation, 1987.
Quality Standards for the Professional Remodeler, N.U. Ahmed, # Home Builder Pr (February 1991), ISBN-10: 0867183594, ISBN-13: 978-0867183597
Natural Ventilation for Buildings, U.S. Department of Energy
R-Value of Wood, U.S. Department of Energy
Spot Ventilation for houses, U.S. Department of Energy
Slab on Grade Foundation Moisture and Air Leakage, U.S. Department of Energy
Straw Bale Home Design, U.S. Department of Energy provides information on strawbale home construction - original source at http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/designing_remodeling/index.cfm/mytopic=10350
More Straw Bale Building: A Complete Guide to Designing and Building with Straw (Mother Earth News Wiser Living Series), Chris Magwood, Peter Mack, New Society Publishers (February 1, 2005), ISBN-10: 0865715181 ISBN-13: 978-0865715189 - Quoting:
Straw bale houses are easy to build, affordable, super energy efficient, environmentally friendly, attractive, and can be designed to match the builder’s personal space needs, esthetics and budget. Despite mushrooming interest in the technique, however, most straw bale books focus on “selling” the dream of straw bale building, but don’t adequately address the most critical issues faced by bale house builders. Moreover, since many developments in this field are recent, few books are completely up to date with the latest techniques.
More Straw Bale Building is designed to fill this gap. A completely rewritten edition of the 20,000-copy best--selling original, it leads the potential builder through the entire process of building a bale structure, tackling all the practical issues: finding and choosing bales; developing sound building plans; roofing; electrical, plumbing, and heating systems; building code compliance; and special concerns for builders in northern climates.
"Vapor Barriers or Vapor Diffusion Retarders", U.S. DOE: how vapor barriers work, types of vapor diffusion barriers, installing vapor barrier
Ventilation for energy efficient buildings, Purpose, Strategies, etc.,


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