Encyclopedia of Types of Building Foundation Damage for Each Kind of Foundation InspectAPedia® -
Foundation defects of occurrence: things that happen that cause damage to building foundation walls or slabs
Types of foundation damage organized by foundation materials
Poured Concrete Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
Pre-Cast Concrete Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
Stone Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
Brick Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
Masonry block Defects listed, described & explained
Wood Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
Photographs of foundation damage patterns and types
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This article explains Foundation defects of occurrence: foundation failures due to an outside force, organized by foundation type and material of construction such as
concrete, masonry block, brick, stone, wood foundation failures and how each foundation material will show
damage due to impact, settlement, frost or water damage, and other causes.
Our page top photo shows significant settlement cracking in a two year old poured concrete foundation. Cracks occurred following blasting at an adjoining construction site. Steel reinforcement may also have been omitted from this wall.
Types of foundation cracks, crack patterns, differences in the meaning of cracks in different foundation materials, site conditions, building history,
and other evidence of building movement and damage are described to
assist in recognizing foundation defects and to help the inspector separate cosmetic or low-risk conditions from
those likely to be important and potentially costly to repair.
Also see this close companion article: FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION which discusses in detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
COMMON FOUNDATION FAILURES - Common Foundation Defects of Occurrence - General
By "defects of occurrence" we mean things that happen to a building foundation (or masonry wall) after it has been built and which result in damage
that might need repair or other further action. Foundation movement, resulting in foundation bulge, foundation cracks, leaning, tipping, shifting or other
damage are examples of potentially important occurrences that merit a careful diagnosis.
Structural / construction defects & foundation damage - a list of foundation failures of occurrence
Foundation inspectors and engineers need to agree on what terms are used to describe various foundation conditions. Articles throughout this website use and illustrate the foundation damage or failure terms listed below.
Foundation settlement cracking due to differential settlement of the wall footings, poor original construction, water, nearby blasting operations
Concentrated loads or point loads and their characteristic appearance as foundation damage
Excessive backfill height; premature backfill causing foundation buckling, leaning, or collapse
Improper materials (soft brick, below grade) causing settlement, differential settlement, leaning, or tipping of foundation walls
Shallow/absent/undermined/cut footings, settlement & frost damage causing settlement, differential settlement, leaning, or tipping of foundation walls
Improper soil preparation - failure to compact soils, especially where foundations are constructed on fill, can lead to settling footings & slabs
Foundation damaged during moved/modular building set, often impact damage
Equipment damage (backfill, vehicles) causing foundation wall buckling, breaks, or leaning
General Signs of Foundation Movement or Foundation Damage
Excessive loading leading to foundation fractures (frost heaves can produce similar damage)
Interior cracks in buildings may be traced to foundation movement or damage
Shrinkage cracks: in concrete, concrete block, are usually not a structural concern, but are a possible point of water or radon entry
Note: use of plumb lines, levels, laser levels, & simple measurements of amount by which a wall is out of level or plumb, or of crack widths
and patterns are beyond ASHI Scope but are common simple tools and procedures used by masons, carpenters, builders, as well as foundation
experts and engineers.
Articles that provide detail for each type of foundation and foundation material demonstrate that each foundation material and type has its own, sometimes unique, signs of damage and failure. For example, a horizontal crack in one type of foundation material may be much more serious than in another. Just below are some articles that offer additional foundation damage analysis methods.
FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY discusses how we decide the severity of foundation damage and the urgency of further action.
FOUNDATION FAILURES by TYPE & MATERIAL describes the types of foundation damage, cracks, leaks, or other defects associated with each type of foundation material (concrete, brick, stone, concrete block, etc.).
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Additional technical contributors & reference sources for this article are listed below.
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We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose concrete foundations and poured concrete walls
at: Poured Concrete Foundation Wall & Slab Defects how to recognize and evaluate concrete foundations, and what causes movement, bulging, leaks or other damage in concrete foundation walls or concrete building walls.
The inspection, diagnosis, and repair of damaged poured concrete floors and slabs is discussed
separately and in detail at SLAB CRACK EVALUATION how to recognize and diagnose different types of slab or concrete floor cracks and movement.
Examples of poured concrete foundation and wall topics that we investigate, discuss, and for which we provide identification photographs
include:Cold Pour Joints in concrete foundations which leave visible lines in the concrete foundation wall, Concrete shrinkage cracks which are not usually a structural problem, Holes and penetrations in concrete foundations and Concrete foundation leaks at form ties which may need sealing. We discuss Concrete foundation settlement cracking such as from footing settlement,
and we discuss Concrete foundation damage from horizontal loading, vehicles, frost and Concrete foundation damage from unusual point loads that can cause crushing or fracturing of concrete foundation walls.
We continue by discussing Leaning concrete foundation walls due water, frost, or other causes,
and we include an extensive discussion of concrete foundation cracks. We review the causes and significance of concrete foundation wall Spalling, flaking, or crumbling as well.
Examples of structural & other failures in Pre-Cast Concrete (Modular) Foundations
Our Detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose pre-cast or pre-fab concrete foundations and walls
is at: Pre-Cast Concrete Foundation Defects
how to recognize and evaluate pre-cast "superior wall" type pre-fab or precast concrete foundations.
Excerpts are just below.
Pre-cast foundation walls such as the Superior Walls R-5 ™ or Xi ™ (extra insulation) systems provide
sections of concrete foundation walls which are lifted into place and bolted together, often sitting
on a simple gravel footing-base, or properly installed, on crushed stone footings [2009 IRC section 403.4.1].
Superior Walls expert Robert Hare points out that Superior Walls panels use specially formulated polyurethane sealant to seal these joints.
From some manufacturers, (not Superior Walls) the wall sections are sealed, typically with gaskets or caulk or both.
Some of the inspection observations or possible concerns we discuss at CONCRETE PRE-CAST FOUNDATION DEFECTS include
Incomplete sealing between foundation sections,
Poor modular foundation section alignment,
inadequate footing drains (or none), and/or inadequate roof drainage system installation
Excessive spanningBasement water entry and leak problems
and the connections and sealant between pre-cast concrete wall sections.
We also discuss the occasional need to use modified intercept drain materials when a basement waterproofing system is being
installed after construction using pre-cast concrete foundation walls.
Examples of structural & other failures in Stone Foundation Walls & Stone Foundations
The photograph shows a bulged and leaning stone foundation on an 1885 building in Rhinebeck NY. We suspect
that a combination of steep bank, nearby highway, lack of adequate footings, and failure to control roof
spillage along the foundation wall are the forces behind this troublesome damage. Of these, the roof spillage
by the foundation was probably the prime source of damage.
Stone foundation walls on pre-1900 buildings are often quite thick, up to four feet at their base. In their original design
these walls tolerated water in the outside soils by permitting it to seep through the wall and often to drain away through a
dirt floor or even a through-wall drain in a low corner. Such dry-laid structural stone foundation walls
rarely fail by leaning but are often found bulged or damaged by water, frost, vehicle traffic, or
by modification by the building owner.
We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose stone foundations and building stone walls
at: STONE FOUNDATION DEFECTS:
how to recognize and evaluate stone foundations, and what causes movement, bulging, leaks or other damage in stone foundation walls or stone building walls.
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Some common stone foundation wall or stone structural wall defects which we discuss further include
dislocations and loose stones in foundations,
bulges in stone foundations,
cracks in stone foundations and walls, damage to stone foundations or walls
caused by removal of stones,
water leaks in or through stone foundations, and other concerns.
How to Recognize & Diagnose Brick Foundation & Brick Wall Defects & Failures
Brick wall settlement: These photographs of a Canadian brick structure show what is probably old and recurrent structural damage to a brick building in its above-ground walls. We suspect there has been ongoing foundation settlement below these problem areas. Further inspection and
investigation were warranted. Any movement in a structural brick wall which risks having
broken the bond courses in the wall, and any movement in a brick veneer wall which has broken or loosened
the connections between the veneer to the underlying structure are potentially dangerous and risk collapsing masonry!
We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose brick foundations and brick walls in full detail
at: BRICK FOUNDATION & WALL DEFECTS
how to recognize and evaluate brick foundations and structural or veneer brick walls, and what causes movement, bulging, leaks or other damage in brick foundation walls or brick building walls.
Some common brick foundation wall, brick structural wall, or brick veneer wall defects which we discuss further include
bulging brick walls (potentially very serious and requiring immediate action for safety),
how to diagnose cracks in brick walls and their common causes, evaluation of loose or missing bricks in brick walls or brick veneers,
the effects of missing or lost mortar between brick courses, use of wood blocks set into a brick wall, fire cuts on wood joists in brick walls, the effects of trying to clean brick walls using aggressive
methods like sand-blasting brick surfaces, high pressure water blasting brick surfaces,
causes of spalling bricks, water leaks into a brick structure, exfoliating rust damage to brick caused by steel reinforcement wire or lintels,
caulking brick walls at steel lintels in brick walls, and also problems caused by use of the wrong mortar to repair brick walls.
We continue by discussing a special masonry failure unique to brick walls: how to inspect and diagnose thermal expansion damage to brick foundations and walls, and damage to brick veneer walls
at: Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking
and how to recognize and evaluate it, and what causes thermal cracks in brick foundation walls or building walls
is discussed and illustrated at Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking.
How to Identify, Diagnose, & Evaluate Masonry Block (concrete & "cinder block") Foundation & Wall Damage
In masonry block construction, foundation or wall cracks occur more commonly in mortar joints but can also occur across blocks. Horizontal
cracks are more immediately threatening of serious collapse than vertical cracks.
Expansion and shrinkage cracks may occur but are less
common than in some other materials. Cracks tend to be more severe in the center of walls from external loading and pressure (from
any source).
Cracks occurring near foundation corners are often from water and frost. In freezing climates, "frost lensing" can
cause soil to stick to and lift a building foundation when the ground freezes. These cracks are usually visible above grade.
We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose concrete block or "masonry block" or "cinderblock" or "CMU" (concrete
masonry unit) foundations and walls in full detail
at: Masonry Block Foundation & Wall Defects, how to inspect,
diagnose, and repair concrete block wall cracks, movement, leaks, and other damage.
Examples of some of the concrete block or cinderblock foundation topics we explore include the following topics:
Leaning or tipping masonry block walls Buckled concrete block walls: often due to pressure or loading from water, frost, earth, or nearby passage of vehicles -
potentially urgent depending on circumstances and amount. Bulging or buckling masonry block wall failures are also called "bending" failures.
Horizontal displacement or "shear failures"
All patterns, shapes, and sizes of types of cracks in concrete block walls.
Concrete Block Wall or Foundation Crack patterns in masonry foundation walls can occur as vertical, diagonal, stair-stepped, or
horizontal patterns which we discuss and among which we distinguish in great detail at FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION
We also discuss Missing concrete block wall components such as headers where the wall has been modified,
Missing concrete block wall footings, piers in concrete block walls, Concrete block wall Impact damage to concrete block walls and the extent of damage it can cause,
Point loading cracks or fractures in concrete block walls, Other concrete block wall cracks through or across concrete blocks as opposed to cracking in the mortar joints. We also explain
what it means if an inspector or new home owner encounters Poured concrete sister walls, additions of pilasters, additions of steel reinforcement, or repeated re-coating of a concrete block wall.
How to Identify, Diagnose, & Evaluate Wood Foundation Defects
Please see our detailed article on wood foundations found at WOOD FOUNDATIONS. Excerpts are below.
Some building jurisdictions permit the use of preserved or "treated" wood products for below-grade building foundations. These materials offer advantages of construction speed and low cost. As in the installation of Concrete Pre-cast Foundation walls, treated wood foundations may be installed on a gravel pad rather than requiring a solid masonry footing.
Inspecting a preserved wood foundation:
Check for evidence of foundation leakage at butt-joints where gaskets or sealant may have been omitted.
Check for evidence of buckling or other damage;
Outside check for the presence of a moisture barrier against the foundation exterior.
Our opinion is that "30-year guaranteed treated wood foundation products" used below grade mean that no permanent
building foundation has been provided. This sketch of the components of a preserved wood foundation is courtesy of Carson Dunlop.
This is a temporary structure. In areas of wet soils and insect damage
risk damage may occur sooner than the warranty period.
FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location. FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS explains a simple method for determining how much bulge or lean is present in a foundation or wall, FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC helps determine if the foundation movement is ongoing, FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY discusses how we decide the severity of foundation damage and the urgency of further action. FOUNDATION FAILURES by TYPE & MATERIAL describes the types of foundation damage, cracks, leaks, or other defects associated with each type of foundation material (concrete, brick, stone, concrete block, etc.).
Superior Walls of America, Ltd, 937 East Earl Road, New Holland, PA 17557, Phone: 1-800-452-9255, Fax: 717-351-9263. Website: http://www.superiorwalls.com/ Technical support:
Ed Helderman our Codes and Standards Manager. Email: ehelderman@superiorwalls.com or 717-351-9744
Robert Hare, Director of Technical Operations, rhare@superiorwalls.com, Tel: 717.351.9735
Thanks to Robert Hare for technical critique & content suggestions for this article - August 2010
Superior Walls of America Builder Guideline Booklet MAN 42-9000 booklet, [local copy] web-search 09/01/2010 original source (indirect link): http://www.superiorwalls.com/faq.php?&answers=1&details=53
"Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
"Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
Sal Alfano - Editor, Journal of Light Construction*
Thanks to Alan Carson, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for technical critique and some of the foundation inspection photographs cited in these articles
Arlene Puentes, ASHI, October Home Inspections - (845) 216-7833 - Kingston NY
Greg Robi, Magnum Piering - 800-822-7437 - National*
Dave Rathbun, P.E. - Geotech Engineering - 904-622-2424 FL*
Ed Seaquist, P.E., SIE Assoc. - 301-269-1450 - National
Dave Wickersheimer, P.E. R.A. - IL, professor, school of structures division, UIUC - University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Architecture. Professor Wickersheimer specializes in structural failure investigation and repair for wood and masonry construction. * Mr. Wickersheimer's engineering consulting service can be contacted at HDC Wickersheimer Engineering Services. (3/2010)
*These reviewers have not returned comment 6/95
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.
The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 2010, $69.00 U.S., is available from Carson Dunlop, and from the InspectAPedia bookstore. The 2010 edition of the Home Reference Book is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. InspectAPedia.com ® author/editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume.
Diagnosing & Repairing House Structure Problems, Edgar O. Seaquist, McGraw Hill, 1980 ISBN 0-07-056013-7 (obsolete, incomplete, missing most diagnosis steps, but very good reading; out of print but used copies are available at Amazon.com, and reprints are available from some inspection tool suppliers). Ed Seaquist was among the first speakers invited to a series of educational conferences organized by D Friedman for ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors, where the topic of inspecting the in-service condition of building structures was first addressed.
Design of Wood Structures - ASD, Donald E. Breyer, Kenneth Fridley, Kelly Cobeen, David Pollock, McGraw Hill, 2003, ISBN-10: 0071379320, ISBN-13: 978-0071379328 This book is an update of a long-established text dating from at least 1988 (DJF); Quoting: This book is gives a good grasp of seismic design for wood structures. Many of the examples especially near the end are good practice for the California PE Special Seismic Exam design questions. It gives a good grasp of how seismic forces move through a building and how to calculate those forces at various locations.THE CLASSIC TEXT ON WOOD DESIGN UPDATED TO INCLUDE THE LATEST CODES AND DATA. Reflects the most recent provisions of the 2003 International Building Code and 2001 National Design Specification for Wood Construction. Continuing the sterling standard set by earlier editions, this indispensable reference clearly explains the best wood design techniques for the safe handling of gravity and lateral loads. Carefully revised and updated to include the new 2003 International Building Code, ASCE 7-02 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, the 2001 National Design Specification for Wood Construction, and the most recent Allowable Stress Design.
Defects and Deterioration in Buildings: A Practical Guide to the Science and Technology of Material Failure, Barry Richardson, Spon Press; 2d Ed (2001), ISBN-10: 041925210X, ISBN-13: 978-0419252108. Quoting: A professional reference designed to assist surveyors, engineers, architects and contractors in diagnosing existing problems and avoiding them in new buildings. Fully revised and updated, this edition, in new clearer format, covers developments in building defects, and problems such as sick building syndrome. Well liked for its mixture of theory and practice the new edition will complement Hinks and Cook's student textbook on defects at the practitioner level.
"Avoiding Foundation Failures," Robert Marshall, Journal of Light Construction, July, 1996 (Highly recommend this article-DF)
"A Foundation for Unstable Soils," Harris Hyman, P.E., Journal of Light Construction, May 1995
"Backfilling Basics," Buck Bartley, Journal of Light Construction, October 1994
"Inspecting Block Foundations," Donald V. Cohen, P.E., ASHI Reporter, December 1998. This article in turn cites the Fine Homebuilding article noted below.
"When Block Foundations go Bad," Fine Homebuilding, June/July 1998
Straw Bale Home Design, U.S. Department of Energy provides information on strawbale home construction - original source at http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/designing_remodeling/index.cfm/mytopic=10350
More Straw Bale Building: A Complete Guide to Designing and Building with Straw (Mother Earth News Wiser Living Series), Chris Magwood, Peter Mack, New Society Publishers (February 1, 2005), ISBN-10: 0865715181 ISBN-13: 978-0865715189 - Quoting: Straw bale houses are easy to build, affordable, super energy efficient, environmentally friendly, attractive, and can be designed to match the builder’s personal space needs, esthetics and budget. Despite mushrooming interest in the technique, however, most straw bale books focus on “selling” the dream of straw bale building, but don’t adequately address the most critical issues faced by bale house builders. Moreover, since many developments in this field are recent, few books are completely up to date with the latest techniques. More Straw Bale Building is designed to fill this gap. A completely rewritten edition of the 20,000-copy best--selling original, it leads the potential builder through the entire process of building a bale structure, tackling all the practical issues: finding and choosing bales; developing sound building plans; roofing; electrical, plumbing, and heating systems; building code compliance; and special concerns for builders in northern climates.
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