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• Foundation defects of occurrence: things that happen that cause damage to building foundation walls or slabs
• Types of foundation damage organized by foundation materials
• Poured Concrete Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
• Pre-Cast Concrete Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
• Stone Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
• Brick Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
• Masonry block Defects listed, described & explained
• Wood Foundation Defects listed, described & explained
• Photographs of foundation damage patterns and types

Here we discuss Foundation defects of occurrence: foundation failures due to an outside force, organized by foundation type and material of construction such as concrete, masonry block, brick, stone, wood foundation failures and how each foundation material will show damage due to impact, settlement, frost or water damage, and other causes.

Our page top photo shows significant settlement cracking in a two year old poured concrete foundation. Cracks occurred following blasting at an adjoining construction site. Steel reinforcement may also have been omitted from this wall.

Types of foundation cracks, crack patterns, differences in the meaning of cracks in different foundation materials, site conditions, building history, and other evidence of building movement and damage are described to assist in recognizing foundation defects and to help the inspector separate cosmetic or low-risk conditions from those likely to be important and potentially costly to repair.

Also see this close companion article: FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION which discusses in detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location. © Copyright 2009 Daniel Friedman, All Rights Reserved. Information Accuracy & Bias Pledge is at below-left. Use links at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

COMMON FOUNDATION FAILURES - Common Foundation Defects of Occurrence - General

By "defects of occurrence" we mean things that happen to a building foundation (or masonry wall) after it has been built and which result in damage that might need repair or other further action. Foundation movement, resulting in foundation bulge, foundation cracks, leaning, tipping, shifting or other damage are examples of potentially important occurreces that merit a careful diagnosis.

Structural / construction defects & foundation damage - a list of foundation failures of occurrence

Foundation inspectors and engineers need to agree on what terms are used to describe various foundation conditions. Articles throughout this website use and illustrate the foundation damage or failure terms listed below.

• Foundation settlement cracking due to differential settlement of the wall footings, poor original construction, water, nearby blasting operations
• Concentrated loads or point loads and their characteristic appearance as foundation damage
• Excessive backfill height; premature backfill causing foundation buckling, leaning, or collapse
• Improper materials (soft brick, below grade) causing settlement, differential settlement, leaning, or tipping of foundation walls
• Shallow/absent/undermined/cut footings, settlement & frost damage causing settlement, differential settlement, leaning, or tipping of foundation walls
• Improper soil preparation - failure to compact soils, especially where foundations are constructed on fill, can lead to settling footings & slabs
• Foundation damaged during moved/modular building set, often impact damage
• Equipment damage (backfill, vehicles) causing foundation wall buckling, breaks, or leaning
• General Signs of Foundation Movement or Foundation Damage
• Foundation cracks (see FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION )
• Foundation Leaning or Tipping
• Foundation Bulging
• Foundation Settlement, uniform or differential
• Excessive loading leading to foundation fractures (frost heaves can produce similar damage)
• Interior cracks in buildings may be traced to foundation movement or damage
• Shrinkage cracks: in concrete, concrete block, are usually not a structural concern, but are a possible point of water or radon entry

Articles that provide detail for each type of foundation and foundation material (listed at our chapter index) demonstrate that each foundation mateiral and type has its own, sometimes unique, signs of damage and failure. For example, a horozontal crack in one type of foundation material may be much more serious than in another. Just below are some articles that offer additional foundation damage analysis methods.

• FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
• FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS explains a simple method for determining how much bulge or lean is present in a foundation or wall,
• FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC helps determine if the foundation movement is ongoing,
• FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY discusses how we decide the severity of foundation damage and the urgency of further action.
• FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL describes the types of foundation damage, cracks, leaks, or other defects associated with each type of foundation material (concrete, brick, stone, concrete block, etc.).

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FOUNDATION CRACKS & DAMAGE GUIDE - how to inspect and diagnose foundation problems, in-depth diagnosis, and evaluation of all types of structural and non-structural cracks in residential foundations [Brick, Concrete, Masonry Block, Stone]
EARTHQUAKE DAMAGED FOUNDATIONS - examples of earthquake-damaged building foundations
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION TYPES - identify different foundation types, construction materials, effects of sequence of construction
FOUNDATION INSPECTION METHODS - what to look for when inspecting any building foundation
FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL- unique failure characteristics of each foundation material
  Block Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Foundation & Wall Defects
  Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking
  Concrete Poured Foundation Wall & Slab Defects
  Concrete Pre-cast Foundation Defects
  Stone Foundation Defects
  Wood Foundation Defects
FAILURES by FOUNDATION MOVEMENT TYPE -recognize & diagnose types of foundation damage by the nature of foundation movement
  BULGED vs. LEANING FOUNDATIONS - distinction of foundation bulging from foundation leaning has important implications for stability
  COMBINATIONS OF FOUNDATION MOVEMENT - the real world of foundation cracks and movement: often more than one force is at work
    Bulge & step cracks
    Earthquake Damage to Foundations
    Flood Damage to Foundations
    Foundation Movement During Collapse
    Other Foundation Step cracks
  HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS - detection, causes, effects, evaluation of horizontal or lateral foundation movement; hillsides
    Bulging, Leaning & Sliding Wall
    Horizontal Foundation Creep
    Horizontal Movement & step cracks in brick
    Impact Damage to Foundations
    Thermal Expansion Cracking in Brick
  VERTICAL MOVEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS - detection, causes, effects, evaluation of vertical foundation movement, differential settlement
    Diagonal Cracks in Concrete Foundations
    Diagonal Step Cracking in Masonry
    Differential vs. Uniform Settlement Cracks
    Leaning or Tipping Buildings
    Uniform Width vs. Tapered Foundation Cracks
    Vertical Cracks
FLOOD DAMAGE TO FOUNDATIONS - examples of flood damaged foundations, flood damage case analysis: were these cracks due to flooding?
FOUNDATION DEFECTS OF OMISSION - recognize things that were left out, like footings, reinforcement, soil compaction, during foundation construction
FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION- recognize & diagnose types of foundation cracks, movement, damage, by the size, shape, location, pattern of cracks
  DIAGONAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - causes and significance of diagonal foundation cracks, varies by foundation type & material
  HORIZONTAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - causes and significance of horizontal foundation cracks, varies by foundation type & material
  SHRINKAGE vs EXPANSION vs SETTLEMENT - which foundation materials shrink, which expand, & their characteristic crack patterns
  Sinkholes & Building Damage - sinkhole recognition, significance, cause, underlying geology, areas where sinkholes are worst
  VERTICAL FOUNDATION CRACKS - - causes and significance of vertical foundation cracks, varies by foundation type & material
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS - procedure for documenting the amount of lean or bulge in a foundation or other building wall
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY - rules of thumb for deciding how much foundation movement requires further action
FOUNDATION DAMAGE REPORTS - how to report foundation inspection results and damage
FOUNDATION INSPECTION STANDARDS - definition of scope of what a foundation inspector
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC - determine if foundation movement was a one-time event or an ongoing problem
FOUNDATION REPAIR METHODS - catalog of methods used to repair damaged foundations and masonry building walls
  Bulged foundation Repairs
  Crack Repair Methods
  Horizontal Movement Repairs
  Shrinkage Crack Repairs
  Vertical Movement Repairs
SITE FACTORS AFFECTING FOUNDATIONS - drainage, rock, soil compaction, slope or grading, bedrock, sloping bedrock, proximity to roads
SLAB CRACK EVALUATION - recognize and diagnose different types of slab or concrete floor cracks and movement
  Control Joint Cracks in Concrete - what are control joints, why they are needed, what happens when they're omitted; are they structural?
  Freezing & Water Damage - recognize frost and water damage to concrete slabs, distinguish from other crack types
  Frost Heave/Expansive Soil Cracks in Slabs - distinguish between frost damage and expansive clay soil damage to slabs
  Seal Cracks by Polyurethane Foam Injection - stop basement or crawl space leakage
  Seal Cracks in Concrete, How To - products and methods used to seal or repair cracks in poured concrete walls, foundations, floors, & slabs.
  Settlement Cracks in Slabs - recognize slab settlement, assess risk, assess potential impact on structure
  Settlement Cracks vs. Frost Heaves - how to tell the difference between frost heaves and foundation settlement; does it matter?
  Settlement Cracks vs. Shrinkage Cracks - critical identification of shrinkage cracks (non-structural) compared with foundation movement
  Shrinkage Cracks in Slabs - causes, prevention, assessment of concrete slab shrinkage cracks
  Shrinkage Cracks Along Foundation Walls - why do we see a gap between a poured concrete slab and its abutting foundation wall?
  Standards for Repair of Cracks in Floors - when does a floor or slab crack need to be repaired? why?
WATER ENTRY in BUILDINGS
  SUMP PUMPS GUIDE - how a sump pump can avoid foundation damage and reduce building water entry
ADDITIONAL READING

We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose concrete foundations and poured concrete walls at: Poured Concrete Foundation Wall & Slab Defects how to recognize and evaluate concrete foundations, and what causes movement, bulging, leaks or other damage in concrete foundation walls or concrete building walls. The inspection, diagnosis, and repair of damaged poured concrete floors and slabs is discussed separately and in detail at SLAB CRACK EVALUATION how to recognize and diagnose different types of slab or concete floor cracks and movement.

Examples of poured concrete foundation and wall topics that we investigate, discuss, and for which we provide identification photographs include:Cold Pour Joints in concrete foundations which leave visible lines in the concrete foundation wall, Concrete shrinkage cracks which are not usually a structural problem, Holes and penetrations in concrete foundations and Concrete foundation leaks at form ties which may need sealing. We discuss Concrete foundation settlement cracking such as from footing settlement, and we discuss Concrete foundation damage from horizontal loading, vehicles, frost and Concrete foundation damage from unusual point loads that can cause crushing or fracturing of concrete foundation walls. We continue by discussing Leaning concrete foundation walls due water, frost, or other causes, and we include an extensive discussion of concrete foundation cracks. We review the causes and significance of concrete foundation wall Spalling, flaking, or crumbling as well.

Examples of structural & other failures in Pre-Cast Concrete (Modular) Foundations

We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose pre-cast or pre-fab concrete foundations and walls at: Pre-Cast Concrete Foundation Defects how to recognize and evaluate pre-cast "superior wall" type pre-fab or precast concrete foundations. Pre-cast foundation walls such as the Superior Wall R-5 ™ or Xi ™ (extra insulation) systems provide sections of concrete foundation walls which are lifted into place and bolted together, often sitting on a simple gravel footing-base. The wall sections are sealed, typically with gaskets or caulk or both. Some of the inspection observations or possible concerns we discuss include Incomplete sealing between foundation sections, Poor modular foundation section alignment, inadequate footing drains (or none), and/or inadequate roof drainage system installation Excessive spanning Basement water entry and leak problems and the connections and sealant between pre-cast concrete wall sections. We also discuss the occasional need to use modified intercept drain materials when a basement waterproofing system is being installed after construction using pre-cast concrete foundation walls.

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Examples of structural & other failures in Stone Foundation Walls & Stone Foundations

The photograph shows a bulged and leaning stone foundation on an 1885 building in Rhinebeck NY. We suspect that a combination of steep bank, nearby highway, lack of adequate footings, and failure to control roof spillage along the foundation wall are the forces behind this troublesome damage. Of these, the roof spillage by the foundation was probably the prime source of damage.

Stone foundation walls on pre-1900 buildings are often quite thick, up to four feet at their base. In their original design these walls tolerated water in the outside soils by permitting it to seep through the wall and often to drain away through a dirt floor or even a through-wall drain in a low corner. Such dry-laid structural stone foundation walls rarely fail by leaning but are often found bulged or damaged by water, frost, vehicle traffic, or by modification by the building owner.

We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose stone foundations and building stone walls at: Stone Foundation Defects: how to recognize and evaluate stone foundations, and what causes movement, bulging, leaks or other damage in stone foundation walls or stone building walls.

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Some common stone foundation wall or stone structural wall defects which we discuss further include dislocations and loose stones in foundations, bulges instone foundations, cracks in stone foundations and walls, damage to stone foundations or walls caused by removal of stones, water leaks in or through stone foundations, and other concerns.

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How to Recognize & Diagnose Brick Foundation & Brick Wall Defects & Failures

Brick wall settlement: These photographs of a Canadian brick structure show what is probably old and recurrent structural damage to a brick building in its above-ground walls. We suspect there has been ongoing foundation settlement below these problem areas. Further inspection and investigation were warranted. Any movement in a structural brick wall which risks having broken the bond courses in the wall, and any movement in a brick veneer wall whch has broken or loosened the connections between the veneer to the underlying structure are potentially dangerous and risk collapsing masonry! We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose brick foundations and brick walls in full detail at: Brick Foundation & Wall Defects how to recognize and evaluate brick foundations and structural or veneer brick walls, and what causes movement, bulging, leaks or other damage in brick foundation walls or brick building walls.

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Some common brick foundation wall, brick structural wall, or brick veneer wall defects which we discuss further include bulging brick walls (potentially very serious and requiring immediate action for safety), how to diagnose cracks in brick walls and their common causes, evaluation of loose or missing bricks in brick walls or brick veneers, the effects of missing or lost mortar between brick courses, use of wood blocks set into a brick wall, fire cuts on wood joists in brick walls, the effects of trying to clean brick walls using aggressive methods like sand-blasting brick surfaces, high pressure water blasting brick surfaces, causes of spalling bricks, water leaks into a brick structure, exfoliating rust damage to brick caused by steel reinfocement wire or lintels, caulking brick walls at steel lintels in brick walls, and also problems caused by use of the wrong mortar to repair brick walls.

We continue by discussing a special masonry failure unique to brick walls: how to inspect and diagnose thermal expansion damage to brick foundations and walls, and damage to brick veneer walls at: Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking and how to recognize and evaluate it, and what causes thermal cracks in brick foundation walls or building walls is discussed and illustrated at Brick Thermal Expansion Cracking.

How to Identify, Diagnose, & Evaluate Masonry Block (concrete & "cinder block") Foundation & Wall Damage

In masonry block construction, foundation or wall cracks occur more commonly in mortar joints but can also occur across blocks. Horizontal cracks are more immediately threatening of serious collapse than vertical cracks. Expansion and shrinkage cracks may occur but are less common than in some other materials. Cracks tend to be more severe in the center of walls from external loading and pressure (from any source). Cracks occurring near foundation corners are often from water and frost. In freezing climates, "frost lensing" can cause soil to stick to and lift a building foundation when the ground freezes. These cracks are usually visible above grade.

We continue a detailed discussion of how to inspect and diagnose concrete block or "masonry block" or "cinderblock" or "CMU" (concrete masonry unit) foundations and walls in full detail at: Masonry Block Foundation & Wall Defects, how to inspect, diagnose, and repair concrete block wall cracks, movement, leaks, and other damage. Examples of some of the concrete block or cinderblock foundation topics we explore include the following topics: Leaning or tipping masonry block wallsBuckled concrete block walls: often due to pressure or loading from water, frost, earth, or nearby passage of vehicles - potentially urgent depending on circumstances and amount. Bulging or buckling masonry block wall failures are also called "bending" failures.

• Horizontal displacement or "shear failures" All patterns, shapes, and sizes of types of cracks in concrete block walls.

  Concrete Block Wall or Foundation Crack patterns in masonry foundation walls can occur as vertical, diagonal, stair-stepped, or horizontal patterns which we discuss and among which we distinguish in great detail at FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION

  We also discuss Missing concrete block wall components such as headers where the wall has been modified, Missing concrete block wall footings, piers in concrete block walls, Concrete block wall Impact damage to concrete block walls and the extent of damage it can cause, Point loading cracks or fractures in concrete block walls, Other concrete block wall cracks through or across concrete blocks as opposed to cracking in the mortar joints. We also explain what it means if an inspector or new home owner encounters Poured concrete sister walls, additions of pilasters, additions of steel reinforcement, or repeated re-coating of a concrete block wall.

How to Identify, Diagnose, & Evaluate Wood Foundation Defects

Our opinion is that "30-year guaranteed treated wood foundation products" used below grade mean that no permanent building foundation has been provided. This sketch of the components of a preserved wood foundation is courtesy of Carson Dunlop.

This is a temporary structure. In areas of wet soils and insect damage risk damage may occur sooner than the warranty period.

Use links just below or at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.

FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS explains a simple method for determining how much bulge or lean is present in a foundation or wall,
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC helps determine if the foundation movement is ongoing,
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY discusses how we decide the severity of foundation damage and the urgency of further action.
FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL describes the types of foundation damage, cracks, leaks, or other defects associated with each type of foundation material (concrete, brick, stone, concrete block, etc.).

• "Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
• "Concrete Slab Finishes and the Use of the F-number System", Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., F.ASCE, online course at www.pdhonline.org/courses/s130/s130.htm
• Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for permission to use illustrations from their publication, The Illustrated Home which illustrates construction details and building components. Carson Dunlop provides home inspection education, publications, report writing materials, and home inspection services. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors.
• Sal Alfano - Editor, Journal of Light Construction*
• Thanks to Alan Carson, Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, for technical critique and some of the foundation inspection photographs cited in these articles
• Terry Carson - ASHI
• Mark Cramer - ASHI
• JD Grewell, ASHI
• Duncan Hannay - ASHI, P.E. *
• Bob Klewitz, M.S.C.E., P.E. - ASHI
• Ken Kruger, P.E., AIA - ASHI
• Aaron Kuertz aaronk@appliedtechnologies.com, with Applied Technologies regarding polyurethane foam sealant as other foundation crack repair product - 05/30/2007
• Bob Peterson, Magnum Piering - 800-771-7437 - FL*
• Arlene Puentes, ASHI, October Home Inspections - (845) 216-7833 - Kingston NY
• Greg Robi, Magnum Piering - 800-822-7437 - National*
• Dave Rathbun, P.E. - Geotech Engineering - 904-622-2424 FL*
• Ed Seaquist, P.E., SIE Assoc. - 301-269-1450 - National
• Dave Wickersheimer, P.E. R.A. - IL*
• *These reviewers have not returned comment 6/95

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More Information on Building Diagnostic Inspections and Repairs

FOUNDATION CRACK EVALUATION discusses detail the process of evaluating foundation cracks and signs of foundation damage by examining the crack size, shape, pattern, and location.
FOUNDATION BULGE or LEAN MEASUREMENTS explains a simple method for determining how much bulge or lean is present in a foundation or wall,
FOUNDATION MOVEMENT ACTIVE vs. STATIC helps determine if the foundation movement is ongoing,
FOUNDATION DAMAGE SEVERITY discusses how we decide the severity of foundation damage and the urgency of further action.
FAILURES by FOUNDATION TYPE & MATERIAL describes the types of foundation damage, cracks, leaks, or other defects associated with each type of foundation material (concrete, brick, stone, concrete block, etc.).

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