How to Purify or Sterilize Drinking Water for Emergency Use After a Flood, Fire, or Earthquake Disaster InspectAPedia® -
How to treat, purify, or sterilize drinking water in an emergency
How to use bleach, boiling, chlorine, distillation, filters, hydrogen peroxide, iodine tablets, or iodine liquid to purify drinking water
How to get rid of chlorine odors or other chemical odors in emergency drinking water supplies
InspectAPedia offers impartial, unbiased advice without conflicts of interest.
We will block advertisements which we discover or readers inform us are associated with bad business practices,
false-advertising, or junk science. Our contact info is at
InspectAPedia.com/Contact.htm.
This article series outlines methods to purify or sanitize drinking water in an emergency following a disaster such as an earthquake, flood, or hurricane.
For explanation of the types of contaminants found in water and how they are removed in residential water systems, see WATER TESTS, CONTAMINANTS, TREATMENT. See WATER TREATMENT EQUIPMENT CHOICES for details on other water treatment options. See Filters for Drinking Water Purification for a discussion of portable and emergency water filters that are designed to purify drinking water, including portable ceramic water filters, silver ceramic filters, magnetic (bogus) water purifiers, paper and polypropylene water filters, etc.
See DRINKING WATER PURIFICATION for a discussion of various methods used to purify emergency drinking water. A companion article, DRINKING WATER - EMERGENCY SOURCES,describes possible sources of drinking water that may be useful in emergency conditions.
Flood Response Checklist lists key actions you should take after building flooding to minimize mold damage, and includes some safety warnings. Before entering a building that has been affected by a disaster such as fire, earthquake, or flood, See BUILDING ENTRY PROCEDURE AFTER FLOODING for some safety warnings for occupants, building owners, or volunteers who may find themselves indoors in a disaster area and without immediate assistance from rescue workers or other experts.
How to Treat or Purify Water to Sanitize it For Drinking
Beware that most advice about purifying water, including the tips we have collected below, address biological contaminants in water, such as bacteria.
Health Warnings about Effective Drinking Water Purification
Chemical contaminants: If your water supply has become contaminated by pesticides, heavy metals, or other chemicals, disinfecting the water will not correct those unsafe conditions.
Protozoan contaminants: Chlorine and iodine are good disinfectants against bacterial contamination (probably among the most common water contaminants) but studies have shown that these are not effective against certain contaminants in water such as toxic chemicals, Cryptosporidia (Cryptosporidium parvum) , and Giardia.
Filtration and boiling are additional steps that can address these microorganisms. Activated charcoal can remove some chemical contaminants but has limited life and capacity.
List of Principal Methods Used to Purify Drinking Water when Camping or in an Emergency
Each of the water purification methods listed below includes a link to more in-depth information.
Chlorination of drinking water: where electrical power and water pressure are present and the equipment is already installed, a chlorinator or water chlorine injection treatment system, usually combined with a charcoal filter for water treatment may be functional. See CHLORINATORS & CHARCOAL FILTERS for details. Also see the U.S. Army field manual FM 21-10 Chapter 2: Individual Preventive Medicine Procedures where preferred and alternative methods of emergency drinking water purification are discussed:
Iodine Tablets: per quart, one tablet in clear water, two in cloudy or cold water
Chlorine Ampules (U.S. Army issue):
Fill your canteen with cleanest water available.
Mix one ampule of chlorine with one-half canteen cup of water,
stir the mixture with a clean device until contents are dissolved.
Take care not to cut your hands when breaking open the glass ampule.
Pour one-half plastic canteen capful or one NBC canteen capful
of the above solution into your canteen of water. Place the cap on your canteen and shake. Slightly loosen the
cap and tip the canteen over to allow leakage around threads.
Tighten cap and wait 30 minutes before drinking.
Tincture of Iodine:
Fill canteen with cleanest water available.
Add 5 drops of 2 percent Tincture of Iodine per canteen/quart.
If water is cold or cloudy, add 10 drops.
Mix thoroughly by shaking canteen. Slightly loosen the cap
and tip canteen over to allow leakage around threads. Tighten cap
and wait 30 minutes before drinking.
Very cloudy or cold water may require prolonged contact time.
Let stand several hours or overnight if possible. Details about using iodine to purify drinking water are at Iodine to disinfect drinking water
Household Bleach / Common Bleach:
Fill canteen with cleanest water possible.
Read label on bleach bottle to determine amount of available
chlorine. Liquid chlorine laundry bleach usually has 4 to 6 percent available chlorine.
Drops of Bleach to Be Added to a One Quart Canteen For Emergency Drinking Water
Available Chlorine
Clear Water
Cold or Cloudy Water
1%
10
20
4—6%
2
4
7--10%
1
2
Place cap on canteen and shake. Slightly loosen the cap and tip
canteen over to allow leakage around threads. Tighten cap and wait
30 minutes before drinking. Details about using bleach to purify drinking water are found at Bleach for disinfecting drinking water: Use chlorine (bleach, sodium hypochlorite) to purify the water. (see warnings just above). Permanent well water chlorination systems are discussed at CHLORINATORS & CHARCOAL FILTERS. We provide more details about using disinfectants to purify drinking water at How Much Disinfectant to Use.
If the source water is fdrom a raw water supply such as a stream or pond, the treated water product should have a 5 ppm residual chlorine level after 30 minutes. Under certain conditions, the local medical authority may direct a higher residual of 10 ppm. A chlorine colorimetric test kit is used to test the chlorine level.
When chlorine or iodine is not available, boil water for 5 to 10
minutes.
In an emergency, even boiling water for 15 seconds will help.
Boiled water must be protected from recontamination. Details about boiling water for drinking water purification are at Boiling water to disinfect it: boil the water to make it suitable for drinking.
Colloidal silver water filters: Silver ceramic water filters are discussed briefly at Water Filter Selection. Silver ceramic water filters are ceramic water filters which have been treated with colloidal silver - a step which increases filter effectiveness by killing bacteria in water passing through the system. Ceramic water filters (which can be effective if properly used) should not be confused with attempts to "purify" water by adding unreliably formulated colloidal silver products to drinking water. Wikipedia on colloidal silver is at our reference list below and from which we quote/paraphrase below.
A ceramic water filtration system coated with silver particles was created by Ron Rivera of Potters for Peace and used in developing countries for water disinfection. - Wikipedia. An investigation into the effectiveness of this silver-coated ceramic water filter was completed in 2001. That study showed that the silver-treated ceramic filter removed 98-100% of the indicator bacteria present in the source water. The filter does not remove arsenic (and probably not other similar chemicals), and the filter is unreliable for removal of pesticides or VOCs.
Colloidal silver as a water disinfectant:
Electrolytically dissolved silver has been used as a water disinfecting agent including in drinking water supplies of the Russian Mir orbital space station and the International Space Station. The World Health Organization includes silver in a colloidal state produced by electrolysis of silver electrodes in water, and colloidal silver in water filters as two of a number of water disinfection methods specified to provide safe drinking water in developing countries.
However, simply using colloidal silver as an addition to drinking water can be an unreliable and unsanitary "... water treatment method according to Quackwatch and its use can lead to argyria. Colloidal silver is a suspension of submicroscopic metallic silver particles in a colloidal base. Long-term use of silver preparations can lead to argyria, a condition in which silver salts deposit in the skin, eyes, and internal organs, and the skin turns ashen-gray. ... The official drug guidebooks (United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary) have not listed colloidal silver products since 1975.
In August 1999, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned colloidal silver sellers from claiming any therapeutic or preventive value for the product, noting that colloidal silver was being marketed for numerous diseases without evidence of safety or effectiveness. The product now has the status of a dietary supplement in the US; it can be promoted with general "structure-function" claims, but cannot be marketed as preventing or treating any illness. Following this ruling, the FDA has issued numerous warnings to Internet sites which have continued to promote colloidal silver as an antibiotic or for other medical purposes. Original source, Wikipedia, includes citations in support of these statements.
In 2002, the AustralianTherapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) found that there were no legitimate medical uses for colloidal silver and no evidence to support its marketing claims. Given the associated safety risks, the TGA concluded that "efforts should be made to curb the illegal availability of colloidal silver products, which is a significant public health issue."[26]
Giardia in Drinking Water - a review of the health hazards & typical equipment costs for portable and whole house water treatment to remove Giardia cysts from drinking water
Iodine to disinfect drinking water: Use Iodine tablets or a liquid tincture of iodine to purify the water for emergency use (see warnings just above)
Hydrogen peroxide to disinfect drinking water may be used (maybe) to purify water for emergency drinking use. [The concentration and exposure time data are still needed for this application.]
Water purifying filters: Use a filter designed for water purification, particularly ceramic filters and silver-ceramic filters. See WATER FILTERS for a separate discussion of home water filters used for sediment, odors, etc.
Use a water purifying pump such as models sold by camping equipment suppliers to purify the water - typically these pumps use a ceramic or other filter
Use a water distiller such as a home or portable distillation unit (our photo just above/left shows a Sears® Kenmore home water distiller) (You'll need electrical power or a source of heat to distill water). This device processes about one gallon of water per cycle. We have been using this Sears Kenmore water distiller, model 5000 for more than fifteen years without a hitch. A disposable charcoal post-distillation filter is available for use in the drip spout of the unit - a potential source of contamination if it is not changed occasionally.
Reverse osmosis to purify drinking water: use a Reverse osmosis water filtration system if water pressure is available or if a portable R.O. system is available. See REVERSE OSMOSIS WATER TREATMENT for details. RO treatment systems may work where there is no electrical power provided that you have water pressure, such as in some municipal water situations.
Vinegar to wash vegetables is sometimes used as a vegetable wash and may be effective against some microorganisms in water - we have not yet found authoritative data on this application.
Mixed oxidants electrochemically generated from brine have been used for water disinfection
Halogenated resins have been used for water disinfection
Home Made & Expedient Water Sterilization Methods: Matthew Stein describes a variety of home-made, expedient, and partly effective water filters and water treatment methods in When Technology Fails. With plastic and a few sticks you can build a solar water sterilizer (solar water disinfection or SODIS systems).
Stein also explains that slow sand filters have been used for partially cleaning and treating water for a very long time. A crude home made charcoal filter will remove some odors, bad tastes, organic toxic chemicals, and radioactive fallout. Mr. Stein also describes sari water filters used in Bangladesh after flooding, but includes a critical warning that filtering water through cloth is by no means really safe.
Our favorite of his suggestions is using a plant to form a water collector and filter system, an idea which reminds us of native Americans who knew how to obtain water from desert barrel cactus. We enjoyed this book and provide this purchase link for it.
Basic water purification procedures that can be used in an emergency are described just below. If community or private wells are back in operating and providing water, do not assume that the water is sanitary and ok to drink until responsible authorities have said so. Even then, local water pipes in a building may be unsanitary and additional cleaning or disinfection may be needed. See WELL CHLORINATION SHOCKING PROCEDURE and See WATER TESTS, CONTAMINANTS, TREATMENT for advice on using a private well for drinking water.
Links provided just below continue with details about various methods to disinfect or purify emergency drinking water.
Critique, contributions wanted: Contact Us to suggest corrections or additions to articles at this website, and if you wish, to receive online listing and credit as a contributor. Particular thanks are due to the many experts and also consumers who read and critique technical articles at InspectAPedia.com.
Additional technical contributors & reference sources for this article are listed below.
Use links just below or at the left of each page to navigate this document or to view other topics at this website. Green links show where you are in our document or website.
Dr. Omar Amin, of the Tempe AZ
Parasitology Center, corresponded with Sharon Ross (citation below), one of our readers asking about peroxide: "You can use hydrogen peroxide if you want to
but we do not have a track record of percentage dilution".
Dr. Amin has done research for the US military and for the CDC.
Aquamira™ chlorine dioxide water purification kits - see www.aquamira.com/
"Aquamira Water Treatment Drops were introduced to the Outdoor market in 1999 and have been a favorite of top outdoor guides and instructors ever since. Whether you are camping, traveling in a foreign country or faced with a disaster, our goal is to provide you with safe, pure and good tasting drinking water. Our complete line of water treatment products include leading edge purification and filtration technologies developed and tested in the lab and proven in the field. We offer systems and products that will provide water for a single individual or a village and almost anything in between."
"Bacteria in Drinking Water" - "Chlorine," Karen Mancl, water quality specialist, Agricultural Engineering, Ohio State University Extension. Mancl explains factors affecting the effectiveness of chlorine in water as a means to destroy bacteria and other microorganisms. OSU reports as follows:
Chlorine kills bacteria, including disease-causing organisms and the nuisance organism, iron bacteria. However, low levels of chlorine, normally used to disinfect water, are not an effective treatment for giardia cysts. A chlorine level of over 10 mg/1 must be maintained for at least 30 minutes to kill giardia cysts. -- http://ohioline.osu.edu/b795/index.html is the front page of this bulletin.
Crystal Clear Supply provides portable ceramic water filter purifiers and portable reverse osmosis water treatment equipment - see http://www.crystalclearsupply.com/category_s/7.htm
Mark Cramer Inspection Services Mark Cramer, Tampa Florida, Mr. Cramer is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors and is a Florida home inspector and home inspection educator. (727) 595-4211 mark@BestTampaInspector.com 11/06
"Do Iodine Water Purification Tablets Provide an Effective Barrier against Cryptosporidium parvum?", Starke, Jeffrey A., Bowman, Dwight D., Labare, Michael, Fogarty, Elizabeth A., and others, Military Medicine, 25 October 2001 [possibly a later version of this article appeared in 2005 -DF]www.amsus.org/military medicine/milmed.htm
"Drinking Water Safety in Emergencies", University of Minnesota extension, extension.umn.edu/info-u/nutrition/BJ646.html
EPA: www.epa.gov/ogwdw/mdbp/pdf/alter/chapt_2.pdf provides an article on use of disinfectants for water treatment
FDA Warning about drinking hydrogen peroxide: www.truthorfiction.com/rumors/h/hydrogen-peroxide.htm This article cites a 2003 entry in Journal
of Food and Science on using Hy.Perox to sterilize vegetables, referring to E.coli - NOT to Giardia.
Giardiaexposure limits for drinking water: see www.mass.gov/dep/water/drinking/standards/giardia.htm is the current regulatory exposure limit (your minimum target for
sterilization)
Hankey and Brown home inspectors, Eden Prairie, MN, technical review by Roger Hankey, prior chairman, Standards Committee, American Society of Home Inspectors - ASHI. 952 829-0044 - hankeyandbrown.com 11/06
"Investigation of the Potters for Peace Colloidal Silver Impregnated Ceramic Filter - Report 1: Intrinsic Effectiveness", Daniele S. Lantagne, Alethia Environmental, Allston, MA, Submitted to Jubilee House Community, December 21, 2001, USAID Purchase Order Number: 524-0-00-01-00014-5362. Quoting from one of the conclusion in that study, p. 58: Based on the results of the microbiological challenges detailed above, the following conclusions are
presented:
1. Some small bacteria, which are potentially a human health concern, pass through the filter when
tested in the laboratory at CIRA-UNAN.
2. This summary of the historical data clearly shows that many different filter designs over the
years remove 98-100 percent of the indicator bacteria present in the source water.
3. Studies of filters that are two and seven years old indicate that the filters still effectively remove
microbiological contaminants. This indicates that the colloidal silver does not ‘wear out’, and
that with proper maintenance, there seems to be no need to reapply silver to the filter.
Currently, the PFP recommendation is to reapply the colloidal silver once per year to the filter.
This does not seem to be necessary based on the laboratory data. However, reapplication of
colloidal silver provides a safety factor in the field that should not be removed without more
extensive testing.
Potable Aqua® emergency drinking water germicidal tablets are produced by the Wisconsin Pharmacal Co., Jackson WI 53037. 800-558-6614 pharmacalway.com
U.S. Army Field Manual 21-10, Field Hygiene and Sanitation, 1988, web search 07/02/2010, original source: http://www.enlisted.info/field-manuals/fm-21-10-field-hygiene-and-sanitation.shtml The purpose of this manual is to assist individual soldiers, unit commanders, leaders and field sanitation teams in preventing disease and environmental injuries. The manual provides information on preventive medicine measures (PMM) to the individual soldier as well as essential information for the unit commander, unit leaders, and the unit field sanitation team on applying unit level PMM.
FM 21-10 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Medical Threat [ copy on file as /septic/USA-FM-21-10-CH1.pdf ] -
FM 21-10 Chapter 2: Individual Preventive Medicine Procedures [ copy on file as /septic/USA-FM-21-10-CH2.pdf ] -
FM 21-10 Chapter 3: Leaders Preventive Medicine Procedures [ copy on file as /septic/USA-FM-21-10-CH3.pdf ] -
FM 21-10 Chatper 4: Unit Field Sanitation Team [ copy on file as /septic/USA-FM-21-10-CH4.pdf ] -
FM 21-10 Appendix A [ copy on file as /septic/USA-FM-21-10-AppA.pdf ] -
FM 21-10 References [ copy on file as /septic/USA-FM-21-10-ref.pdf ] -
FM 21-10 Index [ copy on file as /septic/USA-FM-21-10-Index.pdf ] -
Quackwatch comments on colloidal sliver: - This website offers authoritative references, government publications, studies, and more information about use of colloidal silver to treat drinking water. Colloidal silver is a suspension of submicroscopic metallic silver particles in a colloidal base. Long-term use of silver preparations can lead to argyria, a condition in which silver salts deposit in the skin, eyes, and internal organs, and the skin turns ashen-gray. Many cases of argyria occurred during the pre-antibiotic era when silver was a common ingredient in nosedrops. When the cause became apparent, doctors stopped recommending their use, and reputable manufacturers stopped producing them. The official drug guidebooks (United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary) have not listed colloidal silver products since 1975.
Sharon Ross is a New York City resident, a Riverkeeper member and a MENSA member, who for health reasons has collected references and treatment information about dealing with Giardia cyst contamination in drinking water.
Katadyn™, a Swiss corporation provides water filters, desalinization equipment, and their Micropur chlorine dioxide water purification - see www.katadyn.com/usen/
"Katadyn offers a wide variety of water filtration and purification products suitable for any need. This allows outdoor enthusiasts and travelers to take along products for making their own drinking water when preparing their trips."
Patent: This patent application for UV light sterilization www.patentstorm.us/patents/6565803.html Lists good references on water
purification for Giardia et als
Princeton University - www.princeton.edu
Arlene Puentes, a licensed home inspector, educator, and building failures researcher in Kingston, NY. 11/29/06
Wikipedia on history of use of hydrogen peroxide: Information on Hydrogen peroxide as a sterilant is in Wikipedia at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology) HO2 has been
used for a long time, including by vaporization for sterilizing freeze dryers.
Wikipedia on use of colloidal silver 07/24/2010: (quoting / paraphrasing) - see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidal_silver True colloidal silver is a liquid suspension of microscopic particles of silver.
The commercial alternative medicine product, also referred to as "colloidal silver", includes solutions that contain various concentrations of ionic silver compounds, silver colloids or silver compounds bound to proteins in water. Such products with concentrations of 30 parts per million (ppm) or less are typically manufactured using an electrolysis process, whereas those with higher concentrations of 50 ppm or more are usually silver compounds that have been bound with a protein. These solutions are currently marketed for internal and external use as an alternative medical remedy though there is no scientific evidence to support its effectiveness in vivo.[1]
Excessive ingestion of colloidal silver can result in argyria, a condition in which the skin irreversibly turns blue or grey.
1-Bromo-3-chloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoin (C5H6BrClN2O2) is produced world-wide and is also used in cleaners and bathroom disinfectants and deodorizers. Here is an example MSDS for this product, provided by Leisure Time
Potable Aqua® emergency drinking water germicidal tablets are produced by the Wisconsin Pharmacal Co., Jackson WI 53037. 800-558-6614 pharmacalway.com
Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization (Hardcover)
by A. D. Russell (Editor), W. B. Hugo (Editor), G. A. J. Ayliffe (Editor), Blackwell Science, 2004. ISBN-10: 1405101997, ISBN-13: 978-1405101998.
"This superb book is the best of its kind available and one that will undoubtedly be useful, if not essential, to workers in a variety of industries. Thirty-one distinguished specialists deal comprehensively with the subject matter indicated by the title ... The book is produced with care, is very readable with useful selected references at the end of each chapter and an excellent index. It is an essential source book for everyone interested in this field. For pharmacy undergraduates, it will complement the excellent text on pharmaceutical microbiology by two of the present editors."
The Pharmaceutical Journal: "This is an excellent book. It deals comprehensively and authoritatively with its subject with contributions from 31 distinguished specialists. There is a great deal to interest all those involved in hospital infection ... This book is exceptionally well laid out. There are well chosen references for each chapter and an excellent index. It is highly recommended." The Journal of Hospital Infection.: "The editors and authors must be congratulated for this excellent treatise on nonantibiotic antimicrobial measures in hospitals and industry ... The publication is highly recommended to hospital and research personnel, especially to clinical microbiologists, infection-control and environmental-safety specialists, pharmacists, and dieticians."
New England Journal of Medicine: City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. Covers the many methods of the elimination or prevention of microbial growth. Provides an historical overview, descriptions of the types of antimicrobial agents, factors affecting efficacy, evaluation methods, and types of resistance. Features sterilization methods, and more. Previous edition: c1999. DNLM: Sterilization--methods.
Handbook of Disinfectants and Antiseptics, Joseph M. Ascenzi (Editor), CRC, 1995, ISBN-10: 0824795245 ISBN-13: 978-0824795245 "The evaluation of chemical germicides predates the golden age of microbiology..." -
This well-focused, up-to-date reference details the current medical uses of antiseptics and disinfectants -- particularly in the control of hospital-acquired infections -- presenting methods for evaluating products to obtain regulatory approval and examining chemical, physical, and microbiological properties as well as the toxicology of the most widely used commercial chemicals.
When Technology Fails, Matthew Stein, Chelsea Green Publisher, 2008,493 pages. ISBN-10: 1933392452 ISBN-13: 978-1933392455, "... how to find and sterilize water in the face of utility failure, as well as practical information for dealing with water-quality issues even when the public tap water is still flowing". Mr. Stein's website is www.whentechfails.com/
"Bacteria in Drinking Water" - "Chlorine," Karen Mancl, water quality specialist, Agricultural Engineering, Ohio State University Extension. Mancl explains factors affecting the effectiveness of chlorine in water as a means to destroy bacteria and other microorganisms. OSU reports as follows:
Chlorine kills bacteria, including disease-causing organisms and the nuisance organism, iron bacteria. However, low levels of chlorine, normally used to disinfect water, are not an effective treatment for giardia cysts. A chlorine level of over 10 mg/1 must be maintained for at least 30 minutes to kill giardia cysts. -- http://ohioline.osu.edu/b795/index.html is the front page of this bulletin.
CHLORINE IN DRINKING WATER - Does Chlorine in Drinking Water Harm the Septic Tank? - Septic Tank Cleaning Advice
CHLORINE IN SEPTIC WASTEWATER - Septic Tank Maintenance: Chlorine in Septic Systems - Septic Tank Maintenance Advice
Ohio State University article on the concentration of chlorine necessary to act as an effective disinfectant, and the effects of the water's pH and temperature: See http://ohioline.osu.edu/b795/b795_7.html for details.
Water Supply & Drain Piping, Wells, Pumps, Water Supply Equipment
Water pressure tanks - how to diagnose the need for air, how to add air, stop water pump short cycling to avoid damage - water storage water pressure tank safety.
Drinking Water Supply, Contamination Levels, Water Testing Procedures
Water Supply & Drain Piping, Wells, Pumps, Water Supply Equipment
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.
The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 2010, $69.00 U.S., is available from Carson Dunlop, and from the InspectAPedia bookstore. The 2010 edition of the Home Reference Book is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. InspectAPedia.com ® author/editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume.
Crystal Clear Supply provides portable ceramic water filter purifiers and portable reverse osmosis water treatment equipment - see http://www.crystalclearsupply.com/category_s/7.htm
Handbook of Disinfectants and Antiseptics, Joseph M. Ascenzi (Editor), CRC, 1995, ISBN-10: 0824795245 ISBN-13: 978-0824795245 "The evaluation of chemical germicides predates the golden age of microbiology..." -
This well-focused, up-to-date reference details the current medical uses of antiseptics and disinfectants -- particularly in the control of hospital-acquired infections -- presenting methods for evaluating products to obtain regulatory approval and examining chemical, physical, and microbiological properties as well as the toxicology of the most widely used commercial chemicals.
Potable Aqua® emergency drinking water germicidal tablets are produced by the Wisconsin Pharmacal Co., Jackson WI 53037. 800-558-6614 pharmacalway.com
Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization (Hardcover)
by A. D. Russell (Editor), W. B. Hugo (Editor), G. A. J. Ayliffe (Editor), Blackwell Science, 2004. ISBN-10: 1405101997, ISBN-13: 978-1405101998.
"This superb book is the best of its kind available and one that will undoubtedly be useful, if not essential, to workers in a variety of industries. Thirty-one distinguished specialists deal comprehensively with the subject matter indicated by the title ... The book is produced with care, is very readable with useful selected references at the end of each chapter and an excellent index. It is an essential source book for everyone interested in this field. For pharmacy undergraduates, it will complement the excellent text on pharmaceutical microbiology by two of the present editors."
The Pharmaceutical Journal: "This is an excellent book. It deals comprehensively and authoritatively with its subject with contributions from 31 distinguished specialists. There is a great deal to interest all those involved in hospital infection ... This book is exceptionally well laid out. There are well chosen references for each chapter and an excellent index. It is highly recommended." The Journal of Hospital Infection.: "The editors and authors must be congratulated for this excellent treatise on nonantibiotic antimicrobial measures in hospitals and industry ... The publication is highly recommended to hospital and research personnel, especially to clinical microbiologists, infection-control and environmental-safety specialists, pharmacists, and dieticians."
New England Journal of Medicine: City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. Covers the many methods of the elimination or prevention of microbial growth. Provides an historical overview, descriptions of the types of antimicrobial agents, factors affecting efficacy, evaluation methods, and types of resistance. Features sterilization methods, and more. Previous edition: c1999. DNLM: Sterilization--methods.
U.S. Army Field Manual 21-10, Field Hygiene and Sanitation, 1988, web search 07/02/2010, original source: http://www.enlisted.info/field-manuals/fm-21-10-field-hygiene-and-sanitation.shtml The purpose of this manual is to assist individual soldiers, unit commanders, leaders and field sanitation teams in preventing disease and environmental injuries. The manual provides information on preventive medicine measures (PMM) to the individual soldier as well as essential information for the unit commander, unit leaders, and the unit field sanitation team on applying unit level PMM.
When Technology Fails, Matthew Stein, Chelsea Green Publisher, 2008,493 pages. ISBN-10: 1933392452 ISBN-13: 978-1933392455, "... how to find and sterilize water in the face of utility failure, as well as practical information for dealing with water-quality issues even when the public tap water is still flowing". Mr. Stein's website is www.whentechfails.com/
Mobile View
