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 Use of Chloramine Secondary Disinfectant Treatment in Drinking Water
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This article explains the use of chloramines, a secondary disinfectant used to treat drinking water.
Green links show where you are. © Copyright 2013 InspectAPedia.com, All Rights Reserved. Author Daniel Friedman.
Chloramine Treatment of Drinking Water
Also see WATER TREATMENT EQUIPMENT CHOICES and CHLORINATORS & CHARCOAL FILTERS. Also see DRINKING WATER PURIFICATION for a discussion of various methods used to purify emergency drinking water.
This series of articles explains many common water contamination tests for bacteria and other contaminants in water samples. We describe what to do about contaminated water, listing common corrective measures when water test results are
unsatisfactory. We include water testing and water correction measures warnings for home owners and especially for home buyers when certain conditions are encountered, with advice about what to do when these circumstances are encountered.
 Chloramine disinfectants are used to treat drinking water because of the ability of these chemicals to provide longer-lasting disinfection of drinking water as it moves through water mains and piping between the community water source and the end-using water consumer.
Our photo (left) shows common slime formation inside of a garden hose. Similar slime layers may form inside of water pipes where water is not treated for its prevention.
U.S. EPA Information on Chloramines in Drinking Water
Chloramines in Drinking Water
Chloramines are disinfectants used to treat drinking water. Chloramines are most commonly formed when ammonia is added to chlorine to treat drinking water. The typical purpose of chloramines is to provide longer-lasting water treatment as the water moves through pipes to consumers. This type of disinfection is known as secondary disinfection. Chloramines have been used by water utilities for almost 90 years, and their use is closely regulated. More than one in five Americans uses drinking water treated with chloramines. Water that contains chloramines and meets EPA regulatory standards is safe to use for drinking, cooking, bathing and other household uses.
Many utilities use chlorine as their secondary disinfectant; however, in recent years, some of them changed their secondary disinfectant to chloramines to meet disinfection byproduct regulations. In order to address questions that have been raised by consumers about this switch, EPA scientists and experts have answered 29 of the most frequently asked questions about chloramines. We have also worked with a risk communication expert to help us organize complex information and make it easier for us to express current knowledge.
The question and answer format takes a step-wise approach to communicate complex information to a wide variety of consumers who may have different educational backgrounds or interest in this topic. Each question is answered by three key responses, which are written at an approximately sixth grade reading level. In turn, each key response is supported by three more detailed pieces of information, which are written at an approximately 12th grade reading level. More complex information is provided in the Additional Supporting Information section, which includes links to documents and resources that provide additional technical information.
EPA continues to research drinking water disinfectants and expects to periodically evaluate and possibly update the questions and answers about chloramines when new information becomes available.
The Environmental Protection Agency regulates the safe use of chloramines in drinking water.3
- EPA requires water utilities to meet strict health standards when using chloramines to treat water.
- EPA chloramines regulations are based on the average concentration of chloramines found in a water system over time.
- EPA regulates certain chemicals formed when chloramines react with natural organic matter4 in water.
Additional Supporting Information Concerning the Use of Chloramines in Drinking Water
- Dichloramine is formed when the chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen weight ratio is greater than 5:1, however, this reaction is very slow. Organic chloramines are formed when chlorine reacts with organic nitrogen compounds. Source: Optimizing Chloramine Treatment, 2nd Edition, AwwaRF, 2004
- Trichloramine formation does not usually occur under normal drinking water treatment conditions. However, if the pH is lowered below 4.4 or the chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen weight ratio becomes greater than 7.6:1, then trichloramine can form. Trichloramine formation can occur at a pH between 7 and 8 if the chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen weight ratio is increased to 15:1. Source: Optimizing Chloramine Treatment, 2nd Edition, AwwaRF, 2004
- The drinking water standard for chloramines is 4 parts per million (ppm) measured as an annual average. More information on water utility use of chloramines is available at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/disinfection/index.html and in the 1997-1998 Information Collection Rule, a national survey of large drinking water utilities for the Stage 2 Disinfection Byproducts Rule (DBPR). Information on the Stage 2 DBPR is available at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/disinfection/stage2/.
More information on EPA’s standard setting process may be found at: http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/standard/setting.html.
- Natural Organic Matter: Complex organic compounds that are formed from decomposing plant, animal and microbial material in soil and water. They can react with disinfectants to form disinfection by products. Total organic carbon (TOC) is often measured as an indicator of natural organic matter.
-- Chloramines in Drinking Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Public Concerns Regarding Use of Chloramines
Quoting from Drinking Water Issues: Chloramine, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency:
Recently San Francisco Public Utility Commision (SFPUC - http://www.sfwater.org )changed from using free chlorine to chloramine in its drinking water transmission pipes. Some people are concerned for possible public health implications and for reported effects on fish and amphibians.
Using chloramine to disinfect drinking water is a common standard practice among drinking water utilities. A number of utilities have made this switch from chlorine to chloramines to enhance water safety and compliance with drinking water health standards. For example, the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD - http://www.ebmud.com/), which serves drinking water to customers in parts of the greater San Francisco Bay area, switched from chlorine to using chloramine in February, 1998.
Background information on chloramines
Chlorine has been safely used for more than 100 years for disinfection of drinking water to protect
public health from diseases which are caused by bacteria, viruses and other disease causing
organisms. Chloramines, the monochloramine form in particular, have also been used as a
disinfectant since the 1930's. Chloramines are produced by combining chlorine and ammonia. While
obviously toxic at high levels, neither pose health concerns to humans at the levels used for
drinking water disinfection.
Chloramines are weaker disinfectants than chlorine, but are more stable, thus extending
disinfectant benefits throughout a water utility's distribution system. They are not used as the
primary disinfectant for your water. Chloramines are used for maintaining a disinfectant residual in
the distribution system so that disinfected drinking water is kept safe. Chloramine can also provide
the following benefits:
- Since chloramines are not as reactive as chlorine with organic material in water, they
produce substantially lower concentrations of disinfection byproducts in the distribution
system. Some disinfection byproducts, such as the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic
acids (HAAs), may have adverse health effects at high levels. These disinfection byproducts
are closely regulated by EPA. EPA recently reduced the allowable Maximum Contaminant
Levels for total THMs to 80 ug/L and now limit HAAs to 60 ug/L. The use of chlorine and
chloramines is also regulated by the EPA. We have Maximum Residual Disinfectant Levels of 4.0 mg/L for both these disinfectants. However, our concern is not from their toxicity, but to assure adequate control of the disinfection byproducts.
- Because the chloramine residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine, it provides better protection against bacterial regrowth in systems with large storage tanks and dead-end water mains.
- Chloramine, like chlorine, is effective in controlling biofilm, which is a slime coating in the pipe caused by bacteria. Controlling biofilms also tends to reduce coliform bacteria concentrations and biofilm-induced corrosion of pipes.
- Because chloramine does not tend to react with organic compounds, many systems will experience less incidence of taste and odor complaints when using chloramine.
Other concerns with chloramines in drinking water
Chloramines, like chlorine, are toxic to fish and amphibians at levels used for drinking water. Unlike
chlorine, chloramines do not rapidly dissipate on standing. Neither do they dissipate by boiling. Fish
owners must neutralize or remove chloramines from water used in aquariums or ponds. Treatment
products are readily available at aquarium supply stores. Chloramines react with certain types of
rubber hoses and gaskets, such as those on washing machines and hot water heaters. Black or
greasy particles may appear as these materials degrade. Replacement materials are commonly
available at hardware and plumber supply stores.
- Source: Drinking Water Issues: Chloramine, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Thanks to reader Frank A. Marshall, AIA, LEED AP, at SMB&R, an Architecture, Structural Engineering, Interior Design firm in Camp Hill, PA
for suggesting the addition of Chloramine drinking water treatment information
Basic water purification procedures that can be used in an emergency areat DRINKING WATER - EMERGENCY PURIFICATION. If community or private wells are back in operating and providing water, do not assume that the water is sanitary and ok to drink until responsible authorities have said so. Even then, local water pipes in a building may be unsanitary and additional cleaning or disinfection may be needed. See WELL CHLORINATION SHOCKING PROCEDURE and See WATER TESTS, CONTAMINANTS, TREATMENT for advice on using a private well for drinking water.
Tests for Chloramine (and or Chlorine) in Water
Chloramine testing is provided by a variety of laboratories, including companies who provide tests used by aquarium enthusiasts (chloramine at sufficient concentration and depending on the pH of the water, can injure fish). Before becoming too worried, note that as with any chemical, "the dose makes the poison", and we undestand that Chloramine-T is under study as a treatment to kill bacteria and parasites in koi fish ponds.
Chlorine in water is tested for as hypochlorite (Cl2O2) (bleach solution). We discuss chlorine testing at CHEATING ON WATER TESTS where we detail our procedure to test wellwater for trace levels of chlorine in detail at How to avoid test dishonesty
Chloramine tests in water
Because chloramine remains stable for a longer period in water, and because (sticking around longer) that may permit chlorine molecules to bond with other mateirals, different tests may be appropriate. A test kit that you intend to use to screen water for chlorine should include a test for "total chlorine" not just "free chlorine" because of this binding problem.
- Aquarium suppliers sell chlorine test kits that can detect chloramine in water.
- Chlorine/Chloramine Test Kits produced by Ecological Laboratories are sold through Amazon and at other outlets.
[Disclosure: Amazon pays us a pittance for readers who buy from the above links]
- Here are two additional Chloramine Test Kits sold at Amazon, but you should check online fdor a supplier and price that you like.
[Disclosure: Amazon pays us a pittance for readers who buy from the above links]
- Local water testing labs in your area may also offer these tests as they are quite simple to perform.
Prices for these tests typically run from under $8.00 to $15.00.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
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Technical Reviewers & References
Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.
- Chloramines in Drinking Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, web search 02/09/2011, original source: http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/mdbp/chloramines_index.cfm
- Drinking Water Issues: Chloramine, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, web search 02/09/2011, original source: http://www.epa.gov/region9/water/chloramine.html. Documents the San Francisco Public Utility Commission (SFPUC) change from using free chlorine to using chloramine in drinking water transmission pipes. Quoting:
Recently San Francisco Public Utility Commision (SFPUC - http://www.sfwater.org )changed from using free chlorine to chloramine in its drinking water transmission pipes. Some people are concerned for possible public health implications and for reported effects on fish and amphibians.
Using chloramine to disinfect drinking water is a common standard practice among drinking water utilities. A number of utilities have made this switch from chlorine to chloramines to enhance water safety and compliance with drinking water health standards. For example, the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD - http://www.ebmud.com/), which serves drinking water to customers in parts of the greater San Francisco Bay area, switched from chlorine to using chloramine in February, 1998.
- Thanks to reader Frank A. Marshall, AIA, LEED AP, at SMB&R, an Architecture, Structural Engineering, Interior Design firm in Camp Hill, PA
for suggesting the addition of Chloramine drinking water treatment information, February 2011. Mr. Marshall can be contacted by Email: famarshall [at] smbr-inc [dot] com
- Water pump and pressure tank repair diagnosis & cost an specific case offers an example of diagnosis of loss of water pressure, loss of water, and analyzes the actual repair cost
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
 The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 25th Ed., 2012, is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume. Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
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- Crystal Clear Supply provides portable ceramic water filter purifiers and portable reverse osmosis water treatment equipment - see http://www.crystalclearsupply.com/category_s/7.htm
- Handbook of Disinfectants and Antiseptics, Joseph M. Ascenzi (Editor), CRC, 1995, ISBN-10: 0824795245 ISBN-13: 978-0824795245 "The evaluation of chemical germicides predates the golden age of microbiology..." -
This well-focused, up-to-date reference details the current medical uses of antiseptics and disinfectants -- particularly in the control of hospital-acquired infections -- presenting methods for evaluating products to obtain regulatory approval and examining chemical, physical, and microbiological properties as well as the toxicology of the most widely used commercial chemicals.
- Potable Aqua® emergency drinking water germicidal tablets are produced by the Wisconsin Pharmacal Co., Jackson WI 53037. 800-558-6614 pharmacalway.com
- Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization (Hardcover)
by A. D. Russell (Editor), W. B. Hugo (Editor), G. A. J. Ayliffe (Editor), Blackwell Science, 2004. ISBN-10: 1405101997, ISBN-13: 978-1405101998.
"This superb book is the best of its kind available and one that will undoubtedly be useful, if not essential, to workers in a variety of industries. Thirty-one distinguished specialists deal comprehensively with the subject matter indicated by the title ... The book is produced with care, is very readable with useful selected references at the end of each chapter and an excellent index. It is an essential source book for everyone interested in this field. For pharmacy undergraduates, it will complement the excellent text on pharmaceutical microbiology by two of the present editors."
The Pharmaceutical Journal: "This is an excellent book. It deals comprehensively and authoritatively with its subject with contributions from 31 distinguished specialists. There is a great deal to interest all those involved in hospital infection ... This book is exceptionally well laid out. There are well chosen references for each chapter and an excellent index. It is highly recommended." The Journal of Hospital Infection.: "The editors and authors must be congratulated for this excellent treatise on nonantibiotic antimicrobial measures in hospitals and industry ... The publication is highly recommended to hospital and research personnel, especially to clinical microbiologists, infection-control and environmental-safety specialists, pharmacists, and dieticians."
New England Journal of Medicine: City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. Covers the many methods of the elimination or prevention of microbial growth. Provides an historical overview, descriptions of the types of antimicrobial agents, factors affecting efficacy, evaluation methods, and types of resistance. Features sterilization methods, and more. Previous edition: c1999. DNLM: Sterilization--methods.
- U.S. Army Field Manual 21-10, Field Hygiene and Sanitation, 1988, web search 07/02/2010, original source: http://www.enlisted.info/field-manuals/fm-21-10-field-hygiene-and-sanitation.shtml
The purpose of this manual is to assist individual soldiers, unit commanders, leaders and field sanitation teams in preventing disease and environmental injuries. The manual provides information on preventive medicine measures (PMM) to the individual soldier as well as essential information for the unit commander, unit leaders, and the unit field sanitation team on applying unit level PMM.
- When Technology Fails, Matthew Stein, Chelsea Green Publisher, 2008,493 pages. ISBN-10: 1933392452 ISBN-13: 978-1933392455, "... how to find and sterilize water in the face of utility failure, as well as practical information for dealing with water-quality issues even when the public tap water is still flowing". Mr. Stein's website is www.whentechfails.com/
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